Graduation Speech -- Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

Thank you President Rou, Thank you County School of Education but more(prenominal) specific totallyy, a special Thank You to the Human Services Department and that includes faculty, administration, and fellow students. Thank You Parents, Family Members, Relatives, Friends, Educators, Alumni, Turner Kids, and Graduates, We made it Everybody give these graduates a-round of applause. Graduates give yourselves a-round of applause. Yes, we made it. We made it through all those late nights studying, studying in the early mornings, and we made it through cramming studies all night long. We made it through many obstacles placed in strawman of us, that we thought we could never overcome, but we made it. We made it through all the tests and papers, the research, the reading, the reading, and more reading, which was assigned, to us, and somehow we made it. But how were we able to keep our lives somewhat governable through off all this you might have asked? The answer is simple, the Educators of Western Washington University has shaped us, molded us, and guided us to become the leaders that it took for us to become, to see it here today. There were times I wondered if it would ever end. Or, I would think, what am I doing? It seemed as though I was studying around the clock everyday. age were rolling into days and I often asked different people, what day is it? I began questioning the amount of work, because my original intentions was to go to school so I could ingest more money and work less, which begged the questions was this a set-up? Am I being trained and conditioned to work this hard later on I graduate? Is this usual? Well, my fellow Graduates, because of the hard work and the abnormal lifestyle it took to acquire this degree, I learned that the... ...bout to put each and every one of us in a category where we can say, I am one of the 20% all the citizens in the United States with a college degree, and I am one of the 2% of all the people in the whole world , with a college degree. So you see, we really do deserve to be congratulated. So when we leave here today and set out on our path toward serving others, and making a difference in our world, whether that be shaping, molding, and guiding our children for a better future, leaving the ballot box after casting our vote for whoever, or whatever issue, or leading a march for a worthy cause, whether we stand-alone or we stand as a part of multitudes, We Need To Lift Our Heads Up High, Stand Tall, And Stand Proud because we are now, graduates of Western Washington University, and for that I congratulate you. May GOD conjure up You In All Your Future Endeavors GO Vikings

Identity Theft Essay -- Stealing Identity Theft Essays

Identity TheftIn todays society, there is a white-collar crime that has greatly risen in popularity among criminals. This crime is identity theft. Hundreds of thousands of lot have their identities stolen all(prenominal) year. Identity theft is when these criminals obtain and use consumers personal education such as credit card numbers, bank account numbers, damages cultivation, and social security numbers to purchase goods or services fraudulently. According to the Federal Trade Commission, over 1.1 million people were the victim of identity theft. With this number, it is very(prenominal) evident that identity theft is one of the fastest ontogenesis crimes in our country. This paper bequeath attempt to more thoroughly define identity theft. It will give examples of identity theft by examining the stories of Rosalie Pugliese and Mari Frank. It will show ways in which this very easily committed crime can be avoided, and in the extreme case that a person is a victim of identity fraud, to show the steps one can take to get their lives back on track. According to identityguard.com, identity theft is defined as, ?when someone uses your name or personal information to open a credit account, take out a loan, or make a major purchase. And if they can do it once, they can do it repeatedly, using each new account as a compose for the next one. The result is that identity thieves can run up thousands of dollars worth of charges or obligations all in your name.? In our current society, since there have been a great deal of technological advances made, it is easier than ever for a common criminal to steal a social security number, a bank account number, or any other piece of information which could help a criminal gain access to ones personal finances. Identity thieves can retrieve vital information in many different ways. They can look through your trash at home or at work and retrieve a chuck out bill, a piece of mail, or a credit application. They can intercept your mail before it reaches you and take your social security or other information off of it. Identity thieves can pose as a telemarketer, claiming to represent a reputable charity or business, a bank, or even a credit-reporting agency. By doing this, they may be able to coax vital information from a nave consumer. ?In some states your Social Security number is printed castigate on your driver?s license, so an iden... ...hat has been charged under their name, they are very much responsible for getting rid of the unauthorized accounts and restoring credit. This may conjure to be a very painstaking effort since most credit companies hate dealing with these types of issues. It is very important, though, to stay persistent in the effort to compensate a good credit rating. Identity theft, according to the Federal Trade Commission, is one of the fastest growing crimes in the country. It may be the fastest growing white-collar crime out there. With nothing more than your name, your So cial Security number, and date of birth, the only thing that can limit an identity freebooter is the thief?s creativity. They are able to do anything from open credit card accounts to open accounts and take out loans. With this basic information, they can get a crease in your name, possibly tarnishing an honest person?s good name. They can apply for anything from cell phones to health insurance. With more than 1.1 million victims of identity theft each year, it is very important to know how to protect yourself from identity theft. It is just as, if not more important to know what to do in the case that your identity is stolen.

Traditions and Values of Western Culture Essay -- History Education Es

Traditions and Values of Western Culturemissing works citedHistory is a part of everyones lives. We exist right away because of our history. People who lived before our time fought for the rights that galore(postnominal) individuals take for granted. Especially for an individual to appreciate aliveness, one must be fully aware of the past, so one could truly appreciate their existence today and the freedom they gull. So when the question arises on whether or not Colleges and universities serve to pass on to students the great traditions and determine of Western culture? Without any precariousness the answer should be absolutely yes. If someone answered no, the person should be considered ignorant and maybe they would think twice if all rights were stripped away from him. These institutions should pass on the tradition of education and the curriculum needed to achieve to be an overall well rounded person. The way an institution chooses to pass a long a culture does not matter, s uch traditions need to be passed to the next generation. There are three men of great literature, Mike Rose, John Henry Newman, and Jeffery Hart, who have recognized the importance of passing on the Western culture and they offer some interesting incites to their readers.In Mike Roses essay he introduces the lives of people from a variety of cultures. He describes the hardships one may encounter as he goes through life. Rose begins by describing his own difficulties of accepting education in his life and how he would rather read comic books. He adds that it was not until high school when he met a teacher who inspired him to learn and write a great deal more than he was accustomed. After his final year in high school, Rose adds that the books that seemed so distant, those Great ... ...ed to know the specifics of all the subjects the important idea would be for him to know all other fields of study do exist and what those fields represent.Colleges and universities need to pass on to students the great traditions and set of the Western culture. By supplying someone to learn his history he will have a greater appreciation for life. With education, the knowledge of history will allow a person to make a statement in his lifetime that could better the future for others. The universities and colleges should not be reluctant in teaching the values and traditions of the Western culture. Mike Rose, John Henry Newman, and Jeffrey Hart all support the idea of educating our students about the traditions and values of the Western culture. There is an extreme need for these areas to be covered in school because students are lacking the knowledge of the past.

A Prayer for Owen Meany Essay -- essays research papers

A Prayer for Owen Meany In literature of significant standing, no function of vehemence is perpetrated without reason. For a story to be legitimate in the area of fine literature violence cannot be used in a low-cal manner. In John Irvings modern classic, A Prayer for Owen Meany the audience is faced with multiple scenes of strong violence but violence is neer used without reason. All of the violent acts depicted in the fable are totally necessary for the characters and the plot to develop. This plot-required violence can be seen in the novels first chapter when Owen accidentally kills Johns mother and in the novels last chapter when John relates Owens grotesque, while heroic, death to the audience. The violence that is shown in this novel is used in such a calculated manner that it leaves a great impression on the audience. In Chapter one, the narrator vividly relates his mothers death to the audience, explaining the reasoning behind this amount of detail with the statement, Your memory is a monster you forget- it doesnt. The author meticulously records every sensory arousal he received in the moments leading up to and following his mothers death demonstrating how this event dramatically altered the course of his young life. another(prenominal) example of the detailed memory the narrator recounts in this portion of the novel is seen in the passage, Later, I would remember everything. In revisiting the scene of my &...

Animal Farm: Stalin And Napoleon :: Animal Farm Essays

The novel Animal acquire, by George Orwell, was an allegory about the Russian alteration in which the author engagementd a farm and its members to symbolize major characters and their actions. In this composition, I will reveal to you many of Joseph Stalin s principal(prenominal) contributions and how they relate to the actions of Napoleon from Animal Farm. I will break this topic down into the following three parts, their rise to power, Stalins Five Year Plan, and their use and abuse of authority. When Lenin died in 1924, a struggle for power began between Trotsky (Snowball) and Stalin (Napoleon). Trotsky was a brilliant individual, but Stalin was yet a simple person whose power was base on allegiances with other members of the communist party rather than on ideas. This is contrary to how Snowball was the more intelligent one of the two and all the sheep and pigs were loyal to Napoleon. Trotsky believed in Russias trying to spread communism all over the world as Snowballs pur pose with animalism and Stalin was more focused on the prosperity of Russia, as was Napoleon about the wellness of the farm. By 1929, Stalin had gathered enough resources to exile Trotsky from Russia just as Napoleon did to Snowball. Stalin believed that Russia was one hundred geezerhood behind the west. He devised his Five Year Plan to bring Russia up to speed with the rest of the world. This plan included many of Trotskys ideas, which Stalin had previously opposed. We elicit relate this to the building of the windmill in Animal Farm and how Napoleon was against the idea until after the expulsion of Snowball. Russias economy was centralized on husbandry with over twenty five million farms. Unfortunately, the majority of these barely produced enough to feed the families of those who worked them. Farmers who had a surplus of produce were called kulaks. Stalin decided he would "liquidate the kulaks as a class" under collective agriculture. He believed that once the populati on of "those just getting by" saw the benefits that they would receive from these state-run farms, they would immediately approve, and thats just what they did. Unfortunately for Stalin, the kulaks did not like this idea. In protest, they destroyed their livestock and tools and burned their crops or let them rot in the fields. This event is displayed in Animal Farm when Napoleon decides to sell the chickens eggs for the benefit of the farm.

Animal Farm: Stalin And Napoleon :: Animal Farm Essays

The novel Animal Farm, by George Orwell, was an allegory about the Russian Revolution in which the antecedent used a farm and its members to symbolize major characters and their actions. In this composition, I will reveal to you many of Joseph Stalin s important contributions and how they relate to the actions of forty winks from Animal Farm. I will break this topic down into the following three parts, their rise to power, Stalins Five Year Plan, and their use and abuse of authority. When Lenin died in 1924, a struggle for power began between Trotsky (Snowball) and Stalin (Napoleon). Trotsky was a brilliant individual, but Stalin was just a simple person whose power was based on allegiances with former(a) members of the communist party rather than on ideas. This is contrary to how Snowball was the more intelligent one of the two and all the sheep and pigs were loyal to Napoleon. Trotsky believed in Russias seek to spread communism all over the world as Snowballs purpose with anim alism and Stalin was more focused on the prosperity of Russia, as was Napoleon about the wellness of the farm. By 1929, Stalin had gathered enough resources to exile Trotsky from Russia just as Napoleon did to Snowball. Stalin believed that Russia was one hundred years behind the west. He devised his Five Year Plan to bring Russia up to speed with the rest of the world. This plan included many of Trotskys ideas, which Stalin had previously opposed. We can relate this to the make of the windmill in Animal Farm and how Napoleon was against the idea until after the expulsion of Snowball. Russias economy was centralized on agriculture with over twenty dollar bill five million farms. Unfortunately, the majority of these barely produced enough to feed the families of those who worked them. Farmers who had a surplus of produce were called kulaks. Stalin decided he would "liquidate the kulaks as a associate" under collective agriculture. He believed that once the population of &qu otthose just getting by" saw the benefits that they would receive from these state-run farms, they would immediately approve, and thats just what they did. Unfortunately for Stalin, the kulaks did non like this idea. In protest, they destroyed their livestock and tools and burned their crops or let them rot in the fields. This event is displayed in Animal Farm when Napoleon decides to plow the chickens eggs for the benefit of the farm.

Describe the relationship between Juliet and her parents Essay

Romeo and Juliet have a alliance between them, loving relationship. But they twain are not the same tribe one is a Montague and one is a Capulet, the two do not match as they have a rivalry between them for decades. They saw each other at first sight at a Capulet party. After the party Juliet went to the adjudge to ask her who he is and the nurse said his name is Montague and she really did not because she loved him. Here we see that the relationship between Juliet and her parents is wearing out because when she is in love with Romeo she goes to the nurse for advice and does not bring her parents into it.Juliets dad is a very unhappy person because he is worried when Juliet refused to marry capital of France. Juliet does not want to marry Paris this is because she is in love with Romeo. She does not like Paris because of his act in the story. We can see that the relationship with her father and mother is also not so good. The father wants Juliet to marry no one apart from Paris, and her mother does not really care whom she is married to. Her mother also thinks it is the right age for Juliet to keep up married. But after seeing Capulet rustiness she decides to go with Capulet decision. Hang thee, young baggage Disobidient whelenI tell thee what, get thee to church O Thursday Or never look me in the face. (Act 3 Scene 5) Act four scene one shows us Juliet is refusing to get married to Paris, as she wants to get married to Romeo a Montague. She pays a visit to friar Lawrence for help because she is getting forced to marry Paris. Friar Lawrence offers her his researches into medicinal qualities of herbs of having enabled him to concoct a distilled liquor which Juliet must drink. When she drinks this solution she bequeath fall in coma, and her body will have an appearance of death. Friar Lawrence does not want anyone to find out about the plan, not even the nurse.The relationship is expressed more clearly between the daughter and her parents by the fact she asked friar Lawrence for help and again forgets her parents in the conversation. This shows that her parents are very strict about her relationship. O, shut the door And when thou hast done so, Come weep with me. Past hope, past came, past help Juliet does not get along with her parents easily, could it be the fact that she does not understand her parents feelings. She does obey her parents but betrays them behind their backs i. e. she marries Romeo without her parents permission when they are not supposed to become of the rivalry.

New Coke Case Study

1. When Ted Levitt posed the indecision, What business is it in? he was blurring the distinction between industry and market. Rather than limiting corporate scope, this question challenges companies to look beyond their immediate material product or service and examine the spectrum of ways they undersurface (and should) target the greater public appeal.Coca-Cola is in the boozing industry and in the market of appealing to nostalgia and personal emotional connections to its international patronage. Coca-Colas business is to offer a sweet, fun, memory-inspiring portable beverage that inspires nostalgia for a punch-drunk time gone by. Coca-Cola is a sense-memory product that relies on a perception of indulgence and comfort.2. From its beginnings as Pembertons French Wine Coca, in 1886, Coca-Colas brand edifice strategy relied heavily on appealing to the national emotion and current conviction of any given time period. Pembertons French Wine Coca was de none as a nerve tonic, goo d for alleviating morphine addiction. When the nation turned to temperance,Pemberton reinvented the brand appeal by advocating Coca-Cola as a non-alcoholic enjoyable substitute. Likewise, the ingredient cocain was removed in response to the public sentiment. In 1904, the name Coca-Cola appeared, in essentially the same script format as is utilize today. By generally maintaining visual continuity, Coke achieves a connotation of timelessness.Cokes meanings all stem from an emphasis on wholesomeness and small town the Statesna images. This was best captured during the Great Depression, when Coca-Cola used the slogan The Pause that Refreshes paired with a seemingly carefree E very(prenominal)man heading to work. This contradiction in marketing and real life worked for Coke, which did not suffer a devastating economic impact as a result of the depressed country.Coke began its Santa Claus campaign in the 1920s, but it was artist Haddon Sundbloms now continent 1931 image of a jolly old man in a bright red suit that solidified the connection between Coke and The or so Wonderful Time of the Year. The iconic figure of the generous and loving figure of comfort matched with Cokes image as a drink for every good American citizen. Latching onto the cultural and emotional connection of Christians to St. Nick proved critical to Cokes attempts to forever connect with the rosy yester-year.This strategy is not replicable in todays marketing environment. Socially, the target audience(s) is too polarized for a specific iconic image, particularly an over-commercialized figure associated with a specific religion. Post Cold-War America is less responsive to over-romanticized images, and given the divisive nature of religious images in the secular marketplace, the response Coke garnered in 1931 would not be the same for a new, less acculturated product.3. Cokes advertising stresses brand engagement, emphasizing consumer loyalty and a positive personal image that is common to Coke drinkers. The advertising capitalizes on the cultural desires for conformity, connection to a greater social idea, and purchase with a common and more desirable past these impulses are satisfied by images and well-crafted slogans or jingles.Cokes visual art/image campaign directly taps into a level of communication that transcends language barriers. Their choices reflect strategic attempts to conform with patriotic, socially commendable images, including well-known and brawny entertainment luminaries who may have commanded additional financial run.When Hollywood influences fashion, language, behavioral or religious trends, it is widely considered the congenital order of the beautiful, wealthy elite modeling correct behavior for the lower, coarser classes. In contrast, marketers are perceived to be embodying the unethical pursuit of money when they more overtly sell the same trends. In our consumer-driven culture, however, marketers are fulfilling the edicts of capitalism more l egitimately than celebrities.4. In contrast to Coke, Pepsi cast itself as the youthful drink fresh, light, and savvier than antiquated Coke. Slogans targeted a specific young adult market, and advertising featured pop stars and current sports celebrities. It was a threat to Coke, though it became much more of a threat overdue to Cokes reaction.Coke had built its reputation on core stability, and in response to a legitimate competitor, Coke radically violated the very principles that kept it at the top of the beverage market. Coke could have reemphasized its history, its longevity, its fidelity to the taste generations of consumers appreciated and expected consumers had proven over the years that while other products may gain popularity, Coke would remain a solid choice in the market.5. Both Keough and Goizueta assumed that change meant positive progress, and that if Pepsi was come through at any level, it was because consumers craved something radical. The advent of calorie count ing led to the boom of diet drinks, and Goizueta had already enacted a shift in corporate school of thought by green-lighting Diet Coke. In the framework of the Coca-Cola advertising history, these assumptions were directly violating all of the brand building work. New Coke philosophically undermined what the meaning makers intended.6. This case reveals that powerful brand meaning is a double-edged sword if a product hinges its campaign on comforting emotional continuance, there will be a logical backlash against change, even in the name of positive progress. This case demonstrates the role of brand loyalty in the negative light that is, the consumers passion (as Keough suggests) can work swiftly against a favored product due to years of brand meaning cultivation.7.New Coke failed because it directly conflicted with the brand meaning that executives had worked for decades to confirm in the public consciousness.8. Keough is correct, but the statement is misleading to some extent. R esearch demonstrated that people didnt reject the taste of New Coke people resented a perceived betrayal by what they were encouraged to believe was the most moral and patriotic of beverage-producing companies. Coca-Colas original, consistent and effective marketing succeeded only too well, efficaciously destroying the New Coke campaign.Emotional attachments may not be quantifiable within traditional statistical methodology, but Coke had significant data to support the effectiveness of their nostalgia connection to inform them of the customers product loyalty. The customers were simply behaving in the way Coke had spent nearly a century importunity them to.BibliographyFournier, Susan. 1999. Introducing New Coke. Harvard Business Review.

Need for Immigration Reform

in-migration refers to the movement of people from bingle country to settle in a nonher. In the f alone in States of America, foreigners have since time immemorial been moving in and settling in the U.S. Immigration brings about culture change as different people have varying cultures. There has been sharp disintegration amongst those who be naturally in the U.S and those who came to settle in that respect. In most cases they were excluded from the U.S citizenship.The Mc Carran-Walter snatch, which is also known as the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, establishes the basic laws of citizenship and immigration in the U.S. over the years this law has undergone several changes. The law initially admitted a certain result of immigration of each subject fieldity. This means that on realizeing the specified number of immigrants other people were excluded from U.S. (Bromwell 225)In 1965, the congress passed a law that paved way to immigrants with certain skills needed by t he U.S. It also allowed close relatives of U.S citizens the preference to equal in U.S. In 1990, a law was passed that reinforced the 1965 one.Aliens were allowed to attain U.S citizenship but after being admitted as legal immigrants. Again, those who fled to the U.S after being officially certain as refugees could receive immigrant status. The legal system in the U.S was racial discriminatory. The sequence of laws from 1882 by means of 1934 excluded immigrants from China, Japan, India and the Philippines. It was therefore biased.( http//www.umass.edu/complit/aclanet/usMigrat.html)The Chinese exclusion of Act of 1882 prohibited citizenship for Chinese immigrants in 1884, 1886 and 1888 other practises were passed to reinforce this act. It was the that act that was so explicit on race-based immigration. The Immigration Act of 1917 Exclusion of Asiatic Indians Act. This Act was passed basing on the fact that their racial and ethnic status was not well e wear outated.In 1922, Jap an born applicants who had lived in the U.S for most of their lives could not get U.S citizenship. This was done with the argument that their language differed in truth much from the U.S and this would create problems. However, so as not to create problems based on color, the court defined white as Caucasian.In 1923, as immigrants from India and Bhagat Singh Thind attempted to claim that they were Caucasian. The court changed the definition. It sidelined anthropological and historical issues to coin a word that would not cause much attention. It also separated the sought after immigrants institute the undesir adequate ones. (Josiah 57)The Immigration Act of 1924 excluded Japanese from U.S citizenship. This act totally excluded Japanese and other Asian who had been barred by the 1790 Naturalization law that give tongue to that only whites could be naturalized as citizens. It was aimed at reducing or balancing ethnic distribution as immigrants from Europe and Asia were increasing d rasti appointy. (Miller et al, 304)The Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1932 excluded Philippines easy access to its citizenship it reduced the number of persons to be taken in to of 50 persons per year. Filipinos living in the U.S were named or titled aliens. The U.S reaction against the Filipinos was connected with issue of Philippine independence from U.S colonization. This was like a hit back gesture towards the Filipinos. (http//www.umass.edu/complit/aclanet/usMigrat.html)In 1913, 1920, 1923 alien land laws prohibited the Asians, immigrants from owning both form of property including land. The U.S considered those who were not whites ineligible to acquire citizenship and consequently could not own property.The Asian Barred Zone Act of 1917, denied people from mho Asia to South East Asia and the islands. In the Indian and Pacific oceans surprisingly, it excluded American possessions of the Philippines and Guam.The Magnuson Act of 1943 brought a significant change to the plight of imm igrants of Asian origin. It repealed the 1882 exclusion act that prohibited immigrants of Asian origin from gaining U.S citizenship. It established a quota for Chinese immigrants and made Chinese eligible for citizenship. (Bromwell 225)The Mc Carran Act of 1952 abolished the 1917 Asia Barred Zone Act and allowed Asian immigration into the United States based on ethnic quotas. The quotas were not specified on nationality but through racialized ethnic categories. 100 ethnic persons were allowed to enter U.S annually. These were from diverse nations. The Cold warfare effects made the U.S to have strict quotas that were based on strategic territorial mapping. Any alien who engaged in questionable activities would be deported on the claims of public interest or national security threat issues. (Miller et al, 57)The 1965 immigration act removed natural origins as the basis of the U.S immigration legislation. This is say that considering citizens only by birth was eliminated. It was an ame ndment of the 1952 Mc Carren Act. It gave preferences to people of the Eastern Hemisphere and allowed their adult unmarried sons and daughters to be citizens. Spouses and unmarried sons and daughters of permanent residents could also gain U.S citizenship. Professionals, scientists and artists who had extreme capabilities were allowed in too.Other categories of people who got U.S citizenship were married adults sons and daughters of U.S citizenship, brothers and sisters of adult citizens, workers both skilled and unskilled who would fill the deficient labor supply in the U.S as well as refugees who came from communist based countries. Those affected by natural calamities were also allowed.After 1965, legal regulations on immigration shifted their focus or refocused on how definition was put. For illustration alien was replaced with illegal. The Asia immigrant history is reflected in the Asian American culture and they do remember how the U.S segregated them.The Indochina migration a nd refugee Assistance Act of 1975, the Refugee Act of 1980, and the Amerasian homecoming Act of 1987 facilitated the immigration and settlement of Southeast Asian refugees. The Asian immigration comprised immigrants from South Korea, Philippines, South Vietnam and Cambodia and was due to U.S colonialism, war and neocolonialism. Most Asians immigrated due to disruption by colonialism or distortions form neocolonial practices like capitalism or due to war.In 1986 the Immigrant Reform and Control Act was put in place. It was to reform the current situation on immigration. The Immigration Act of 1990 reinforced it. Illegal citizens got citizenship those who were there before 1982. It was a crime to hire illegal immigrants. Immigration today is still a sensitive matte than creates, contradictions between the capital and the state, economic and political imperatives. Californians Proposition 187 was passed in 1994 and it denies education and medical care to illegal immigrants. It is obs erved that groups aimed here are Mexicans and Latinos.Latinos and Mexicans have provided semi-skilled labor to the U.S since the 1950s. They work in farms, hotels and domestic services in U.S and they get low wages for that. They work under poor conditions. The U.S does not improve their working conditions and those positions do not attract its own citizens. This perpetuates the movement of illegal immigration in search for low wage jobs. (George 52)The 1996 Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 made significant changes on asylum law, immigration detention, and criminal-related immigration.The Real ID Act of 2005 was aimed at barring terrorism. National standards were established, waiving laws that interfered with construction of physical barriers at the borders. It entailed frightening laws on application for asylum and alien deportation for terrorism activity. The government funded reports with security and changing visa limits for temporary workers.A fter the 9/11 U.S had to reform the immigration laws. Entry of civil immigration was to be put into the national crime information center, a computer crime database to criminalize it. Deportation was to take place. wad supporting immigrants would be jailed. Employees will be required to verify their employees eligibility to work through the employment eligibility verification systems. Illegal workers were to be granted invitee workers visas. H-1 B visas would be designed for comprises to employ temporary skilled workers.There is need to reform the current, immigration rules and regulations in U.S. the rule of verifying ones immigration status even in churches is an extreme. It reduces the work of the church leaders to immigration enforcement officials. Being penalized for helping immigrants who in most cases are poor is jeopardizing with Christians faith of a call to help. It will create conflict between the church and the state. (Bill Ong Hing 79)Today, the system will fail to att ract and retain legal permanent immigrants who are most able to contribute valuable human resources to the country. Reforms ought to be done to legal permanent and temporary systems to promote recruitment and retainment of migrants who can contribute to the U.S national interest in immigration. Reforming of changing the institutional and regulatory structure governing the employment of immigrants within the U.S to ensure migrants contribute maximally to development of U.S and at reduced costs. Immigration work policies should be changed and immigration should not be used as a tool of foreign policy.( http//ccis-ucsd.org/publication/wrkg132.pdf)The government should tackle long-term issues regarding to the immigrants role in the economy instead of tackling freshly temporary worker program. The immigration bill will cost the country a lot of money and this would be jeopardized if ID thieving were carried out. Creation of Employment Eligibility Verification (EEV) systems that will e ntail high levels of sharing of information across many electronic databases can be easily tampered. EEVS will expose peoples personal information like social security records, passport and visa records and even birth and death records, all of which can be used for identity.The 2005 House of Representatives bill 4437 (H.R 4437) about creating a fence along Mexico and criminalizing the aiding of illegal immigrants and mandatory detention of illegal aliens is an in called for measure. It is against the supranational human rights as the immigrants are people who have rights. Detaining aboutone without evidence of crime committed is an un sportsmanlike act. Although the H-1 B visas will allow immigrants to work in U.S companies temporarily is not good enough. There will be extreme competition for the visas provided. The industries that benefit a lot from foreign expertise will not optimize their production, as they would want the number of visas increased.( Bill Ong Hing 79)More ratio nal and long-term solutions should be sought to replace the harsh penalties that have been put in place. The process of legally attempting to enter the U.S and the workforce is not only complex but also expensive and time consuming even for those who would could pass on prise to the countrys human resource.Immigration to Australia is different from the U.S. the country has a strong economy and attracts highly skilled young people who are voluntary. It uses fair criteria in absorbing immigrants into its workforce. It applies ones qualifications, work experience as well as language proficiency. It has established immigration programs like the Humanitarian plan and Australian Family Migration.It emphasizes on attracting people who can contribute positively to the economy. It assists immigrants in settling by helping them reside in areas of their choice. Canada is one of the worlds top immigration destination and more than 200,000 new arrivals come under the Canada immigration syste m annually. It is easier to settle in Canada and obtaining a visa is not precise difficult. Like Australia, Canada encourages people with skills and experience and those who are to venture into business. A large proportion of immigration to Canada is under family re union and refugee programs. It also allows for people who are on holidays.Germany on the other hand attempts to encourage the highly skilled workers low skilled workers will therefore find its accessibility difficult. Professors, natural scientists, engineers and scientific qualified personnel in high technologies find immigration easy. They are also given permanent residence and their family members allowed working in Germany as well. ego employed immigrants or entrepreneurs are also allowed as long as they create jobs for Germans and makes profits. Through the Schengen Agreement people can travel through the Schengen countries with one schengen visa.Policy makers should see the global market for immigrants as an oppo rtunity. The visa laws should take advantage of the situation by ensuring that the recruitment process is beneficial to the country through enabling retainment of needed immigrants. Economic migration will be beneficial to the countrys economy.The legal visa system fails to meet its goals. It is outdated and waiting lists for some family visas take more than 20 years. This hinders family members who applied at the prime of their lives to be eventually denied the chance until they are at their retirement age and can add very little if any economic contribution.(http//ccis-ucsd.org/publication/wrkg132.pdf)The logic of family reunion is at times not realized and this is a cause of illegal migration due to frustrations experienced. Setting numerical limits of how many are to be accepted in the system will not be a successful measure unless there is an establishment of flexible numerical limits with mechanisms put in place for adjusting the limits up or down.The criteria used to come up with the limits as to which one should not travel by is also questionable. There could lack consensus on how much the number should be causing loopholes in the system. Immigrants have been beneficial to the U.S economy and they contribute to majority of the new jobs. The issue of immigration is a politicized issue and the point is lost when politics outshine facts and economics. Immigrants should not be harshly treated.Family based visa rules should be restructured to attain the sole purpose of family reunion visas. However this should not outshine the economic function role. Temporary visas are not the best to attract the most outstanding immigrants. Very harsh measures on immigrants who are basically looking for better lives in lesser paying jobs are uncalled for. The many undocumented immigrants do not actually cause a threat to the U.S security. They suffer a lot due to the limited access to social and political services. Criminalizing undocumented immigrants will be a problem as it will encourage more activities in the black market and it wont be economically viable for the U.S. fasten security at the borders is a brilliant idea but the rate at which deaths are registered is alarming. If policies were more accommodating this should not be occurring. Increasing the stave and the technology to speed up legal entries will be an appropriate measure in ensuring that immigrants are cleared up faster.According to the conservatives deportation act will not be economically viable to the country. They support the immigrants in fighting for their rights through numerous strikes and demonstrations. The libels support the government in enforcing its sanctions. They are willing and ready to support the government in fighting its enemies be it foreign or domestic. Conservatives advocate for creation of new legal channels for immigrants. However, protection of national security should not be neglected. To prevent future illegal border crossing the congress should grant immigrants already in U.S form of legal status. whole works citedJana Evans-Braziel.History of migration and immigration laws in the United States.General premises of US Citizens.Retreived on twenty-ninth October 2007 fromhttp//www.umass.edu/complit/aclanet/usMigrat.htmlMarc R.Rosenblum.US Immigration Reform can the system Be repaired. Retrieved on29th October 2006 fromhttp//ccis-ucsd.org/publication/wrkg132.pdfBromwell W. Jeremy. History of Immigrants to the United States, A M Kelley, 1969.pp225Miller E Willard and Ruby M United States Immigration. A Reference handbook 1996JV6465 M55.pp304.Josiah M Herman decision a Moral heart for US Migration policy. An anthropologicalPerspective.pp57Roy H.Beck The Case Against migration NewYork, 1996,pp40George J.Borjas Heavens doors. Princeton University Press.1999, pp52.Bill O. Hing The immigrant as criminal Punishing dreamers.9 Hasting womens law1998 Journal 79

Examine the use of the dramatic monologue Essay

Examine the use of the striking monologue in the poetry of Carol Ann Duffy Unlike the soliloquy, the dramatic monologue speaks directly to the endorser and voices a single character or personas thoughts, this offers a better understanding of the ideas and message the poet is trying to express. The dramatic monologue is used to form a bond or relationship between the speaker and the reader, taking the rime to a personal level, and in turn more offspringive in transportation a certain message.This essay will explore the way the dramatic monologue is used in both Demeter and Mrs. Midas by Carol Ann Duffy, taken from her charm of poems The creative activitys Wife. The phrase, Behind eery great man there is said to be a great womanhood comes to mind when reading The Worlds Wife. The title of this collection reveals much about its content and Duffys intentions. The Worlds Wife places emphasis on the wife, giving the woman the centre stage and allowing her the chance to speak thro ugh the medium of the dramatic monologue.From Mrs. Midas to Mrs. Beast, Duffy explores the thoughts and feelings of the women behind famous men, be it through history or through romance or fairytale, Duffy makes it very clear that every woman has a tale to tell. Mrs. Midas tells the untold story of the well-known Greek myth King Midas, who is miraculously, granted the handle of turning everything he touches into gold. As with all the poems in The Worlds Wife, the title is a clear giveaway of what the poem is about to entail, and this is no different. Mrs.Midas, the wife of King Midas is the persona of this particular monologue and here she voices her thoughts on her husbands newfound ability. The kitchen filled with the smell of itself. This personification continues through the first stanza of Mrs. Midas. Its steamy breath and wiped the others glass like a brow, personifies the kitchen Mrs. Midas is in to help you relate to the familiar homely setting that surrounds her. The ef fect of this is that you feel how she feels at that time, safe, happy and without a care in the world.The lines begun to unwind and the imagery of her relaxing to a glass of wine enforce this feeling. The use of dramatic monologue helps to dramatise the final line of the stanza, He was standing under the pear tree snapping a twig, the descriptive lines before this contrasts with the abrupt channelise of topic, this prepares you for the turning point in her story, where the twist to her tale begins. Within the next few stanzas Mrs. Midass tone dramatically changes from feeling relaxed and happy to ball over and dismay at what her husband has done. He came into the house.The doorknobs gleamed. He drew the blinds. The short sentences evoke a feeling of everything happening too fast, supporting the shocked and horrified mood, which continues to the next stanzas. The first point of the poem in which you hear of her husbands reaction is where he laughs in reply to her question, What i n the name of beau ideal is going on? Duffy has intended his initial reaction to be laughter instead of explaining himself to portray the stereotypical man that doesnt show consideration or take the situation or his wife seriously when she clearly needs it.The poem is set out in a structure of eleven stanzas consisting of sise lines where only two exceptions of this rule is made. He toyed with his spoon, then mine, then with the knives, the forks. The word forks takes a line by itself to help you work out the way in which Mrs. Midas is mouth to you, she is clearly still in a state of shock and this new line marks a short pause in her speech where she is fight to stay calm. You see, we were passionate then, where then is on a line by itself it is as though Mrs.Midas has taken a short moment to imagine those happy times when they were passionate, appreciating them as those days are now long gone. I locked the cat in the cellar, The toilet I didnt mind. akin in much of her work , Duffy implements short spouts of humour throughout the poem, the effect of this is that the colloquial language engages the reader and helps to support the idea that Mrs. Midas is actually voicing her tale to the reader personally. Mrs.Midas speaks bitterly about the fatal consequences her husband has bought to their marriage, Separate beds. In fact, I put a chair against my door, near petrified, she also reminisces of the days when they were happy and uses haggling such as unwrapping which connotes the excitement she once felt. Contrasting the good times they had together with the breakdowns of their marriage they are experiencing now highlights the selfishness and lack of thought her husband had for their relationship. The poem ends with Mrs.Midas being forced to separate from her husband. He is left secluded on his own in the wilds away from people he can potentially harm. The chaff of this is that he had hoped the power of the golden touch would win him prosperity, popularit y and love and respect by all, and yet it has forced him to live alone for the rest of his life, unable to ever be intimate with his wife again, and unable to enjoy the things he had hoped money would buy him. but the lack of thought for me. Pure selfishness.

Critical Minerals And Uses Of Precious Metals Environmental Sciences Essay

Today I will supply some background in establishment on which metals atomic number 18 the or so built-in to our present these metals are wide utilise in mundane life, in some manner or an former(a)(a), by most Ameri evokes. I will a like discourse the beginning and formation of our cute metals, every kidnapping honourable as where in the state and the universe they are normally tack together and exploitd. As with all congenital resources, the hazard of someday running out of these metals is non merely possible, but really likely. I plan to besides discourse solutions to this hereafter job, including the usage of some(prenominal) man-made and naturally-occurring replacements for individually type of metal.Cherished metals are considered overcritical for good ground. They have a broad assortment of applications in industry, engineering, jewellery, and hitherto medical specialty. It is agreed among mineralogists that the most critical minerals which fall under the class of convey dear metals are gilded, Ag, and minerals in the Pt metals group Pt, Pd and Ir. Although the U.S. went off the gilded criterion in 1972 thanks to electric chair Nixon, specious is still normally functiond in the countries of medical specialty, jewellery, electronics, and industry. The component is lissome and ductile, so it arsehole be transformed into assorted forms and made multipurpose in different facets of industry it can even be made so thin that it is about crystalline. Silver, much like bullion, besides has an array of utilizations in today s universe. Besides the obvious usage in the jewellery concern, Ag is besides apply in dental medicine, medical specialty, electronics Ag even has a topographical point in the industry of certain types of vesture. Platinum group metals, which are known as PGMs, have a broad circumstance of applications. Platinum is normally used in electronics, catalytic convertors, jewellery, and dental medicine tools. Pallad ium, which is a comparatively rare metal, is besides used chiefly in catalytic convertors. It is besides used in jewellery, and surgical and dentistry equipment. atomic number 77 besides has many influential applications in scientific discipline and industry it lends its belongingss to particle natural philosophies, acetic acid ware, and the industry of engines that require corrosion opposition.Beginnings, Uses, and Supply of G elderlyBeginning and Beginnings of GoldIn naturally-occurring sedimentations, deluxe ( atomic symbol Au ) is nominate in the signifier of single nuggets it is besides constitute as grains and flakes in certain stones, or as venas. A vena is a mass of illuminate mineral found within a stone, normally formed as a consequence of deposition from after the necessary mineral elements are carried to the topographic point via an aqueous solution and precipitated out of the solution. Alternately, lucky can be found in alluvial sedimentations by and large as nuggets which are unconsolidated sedimentations of deposit that have been eroded or otherwise shaped by H2O outside of a marine environment. By and large the gold found in ores is really little, but in some exceeding instances, really sizable nuggets have been found. Gold that occurs together with either vitreous silica or sulphide minerals such as fools gold, besides known as Fool s Gold is called a load sedimentation. Because gold has such a beginning thaw temperature compared to other metals, it is readily carried by hydrothermal solutions as a consequence of chilling magma, and so solidifies alongside the vitreous silica. One of the best topographic points to put across gold sedimentations is near the invasion of environing stone by a cooled magma organic structure. These lode sedimentations normally form inside clefts ( known as crevices ) within a slab of stone. Gold can besides be recycled from scrap stuff, and 190 dozenss of gold were acquire this manner in 2009 in the U.S.The most common land geographic locations for gold excavation worldwide are southeasterly Australia, East Asia, parts of South America and Africa, and parts of the United States. Gold militias are highest in South Africa ( 6,000 dozenss ) , Australia ( 5,800 dozenss ) , and Russia ( 6,000 dozenss ) . Militias are different from mined measures because the gold in militias is held by a cardinal bank of a peculiar state, and used purely for payment to other states or organisations. The U.S. shops about 3,000 dozenss of gold in its pecuniary militias.Along with the Treasury s Stockpile, the Department of Defense runs a Cherished Metallic elements Recovery Program ( PMRP ) , which working to achieve cherished metals for scotch intents. Specifically, the DOD recovers cherished metals from metal bearing stuffs such as photographic and X-ray stuff ( from infirmaries, printing installations, exposure labs ) metal dust collected from vacuity sweepers and scrap/waste metals from i ndustrial workss. The PMRP focuses on the metals discussed in this testimony, every present moment good as Os, Rh, and Ru.Harmonizing to the British geological Survey, as of 2005 the top location for gold excavation was South Africa, with a sum of about 294 dozenss produced. In 2008, the gold excavation industry in South Africa produced 2260 dozenss. besides even though much of the universe s gold comes from South Africa and China, in that location is some to be found in the U.S. The most abundant beginnings of char in the U.S. are found in mines in South Dakota and Nevada.Uses of GoldThe most common usage of gold today is for the industry of jewellery. Gold is besides an ideal industrial metal due to its opposition to corrosion, every bit good as its electrical conduction for usage in machine equipment and electronics parts. Harmonizing to the U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) , approximately 90 % of gold brought into the market yearly ends up in manufactured merchandises, whil e the staying part of it goes to both private investors and pecuniary militias. In 2009, 72 % of mined gold was used for jewellery, 7 % was used for electronics, and 21 % went into dental equipment and other assorted utilizations.Domestic Supply of GoldIn January of this twelvemonth, the USGS print a trade good study on gold for the old twelvemonth ( 2009 ) . Harmonizing to this study, gold was retrieved at 50 load mines, every bit good as a few placer mines, all of which are in Alaska. As a side note, the difference between the two types of mines is that a load mine occurs within solid stones ( for illustration, in a vena ) , while a topographic point mine is an alluvial sedimentation normally of sand or crushed rock which besides contains of here and noweeing minerals and metals such as gold. Smaller placer mines in Alaska and a few of the western United States besides yielded gold. A little sum of the 2009 gold supply besides came as by-products from Cu excavation operation s.In the last few old ages, the purchase of gilded jewellery has light well, doing pecuniary values to increase. Last twelvemonth, gold mines in Nevada showed significant littleening in production, while a mine in Montana and other in Nevada closed, to farther cut down production. In 2009, the mean fiscal value of gilded jewellery rose over 20 % higher than the mean monetary value in 2008. Due to recent labour jobs in gilded mines of South Africa, the rubric of top gold manufacturer shifted to China, with Australia and the U.S. following near behind. Although comparatively important sums of gold are mined here in the U.S. , a good part of it comes from these international beginnings. Last twelvemonth, 210 dozenss of gold were mined in the U.S. , and gold militias in the U.S. totaled 3,000 dozenss.Import Beginnings of GoldAlthough China is presently the universe s top manufacturer of gold, none of our imported gold comes from at that place. Alternatively, the gold import statist ics are broken down as follows ( for the old ages 2005-2008, the most recent records from the USGS ) Canada 30 %Peru 29 %Mexico 16 %Chile 9 % new(prenominal) 16 %Beginnings, Uses, and Supply of SilverBeginning and Beginnings of SilverSilver ( atomic symbol Ag ) , a soft passage metal, of course occurs as an metal with gold it is besides found in its native signifier, and in ores along with S and arsenous anhydride. However, the chief beginnings of Ag are really copper, lead, and nickel ores, which are mined in parts of South America, Mexico, China, Australia, and eastern European states such as Serbia and Poland. Mines which produce the highest planetary sums of Ag are located in Mexico, Australia, Russia, Peru, and, here in the U.S. , in Alaska.Silver, like most metals, organize compounds with sulphides inside the orb s crust. Metal sulfides which have dissolved in hot, piquant H2O within the crust in the end precipitate as different minerals when they come into contact wit h ice chest H2O or air. Silver precipitates as a mixture with these other sulphides, which is how it is at last found at or closer to the Earth s fold. It is usually found as a constituent of hydrothermal venas. Silver occurs natively, and is comparatively pure in this signifier. It besides occurs as ores, such as argenite ( Ag2S ) and chlorargyrite ( AgCl ) , and is recovered as a consequence of the Cu refinement procedure.Uses of SilverSilver is largely used for the intents of jewellery, utensils, industrial equipment, coins and decorations, and persona taking. The USGS notes that Ag has the highest thermal and electric conduction of all the metals. Pure Ag besides exhibits the colorst colour of any metal, every bit good as the highest optical coefficient of reflection. Because it has such powerful optical belongingss, it is used often to do mirrors. The USGS besides notes that the most common single-end usage of Ag is picture taking in this country, Ag can be found on photo paper, movie, and in darkroom and exposure lab chemicals used for publishing exposure. However, the demand for Ag in picture taking has declined significantly, from 2,290 dozenss in 1999 to around 900 dozenss in 2009 this is likely due to the rapid passage from traditional 35mm picture taking to digital picture taking worldwide. Harmonizing to the USGS, Ag is even used in vesture to decrease olfactory property.Domestic Supply of SilverIn a mineral trade good sum-up of 2009 published in January 2010, the USGS provinces that the U.S. mined about 1,230 dozenss of silver- this supply of Ag was deserving about $ 520 million. As with gold, most of the state s Ag comes from Alaska, with Nevada coming in at a close second. Last twelvemonth, 1,500 dozenss of Ag were recovered through refinement, including bit metal. The USGS notes that unlike gold, there is no government activity reserve of Ag. In the 1950s when the authorities reserve of Ag was at its highest, the U.S. Treasury was in ow nership of the cheapest Ag, while any silver outside the Treasury significantly rose in monetary value. Since the authorities s Ag was so inexpensive, demand increased steadily until the reserve disappeared wholly. Since Ag is no longer used to do American coins, there merely is no demand for authorities reserve. Aside from the measures of Ag we mine in the U.S. , we besides to a great extent on Ag imports from other states.Import Beginnings of SilverOver half of the Ag used in our today really comes from Mexico, with important sums coming from Canada and South America every bit good. Between 2005 and 2008, the import of Ag into the U.S. can be broken down as followsMexico 54 %Canada 26 %Peru 15 %Chile 3 %Other 2 %Two-thirdss of the universe s Ag trade goods came from treating Cu, gold and lead-zinc ores in 2009. From 2005-2008, the U.S. exported a sum of 3,850 metric dozenss of Ag to other states. More late, in 2009, we merely exported 360 dozenss to other states.Beginnings, U ses, and Supply of PlatinumBeginning and Beginnings of PlatinumThe three most common and of import members of the Platinum Group Metals are Pt, Pd, and Ir. Platinum ( atomic symbol Pt ) is another malleable passage metal. Platinum is an improbably rare metal, and occurs at a concentration of merely 0.005 parts per million ( ppm ) in the Earth s crust. The celebrated Bushveld Complex in South Africa is the top modesty of Pt in the universe. Harmonizing to the USGS, in 2009 South Africa produced the highest sum of Pt 80 % of the universe s Pt trade good, to be exact. Russia produced the 2nd highest sum of Pt that twelvemonth, at merely 11 % . Platinum can be found natively or as an metal with Ir. An metal is a solid solution of two or metals, in which the atom of one metal occupies unfastened infinites between the atoms of the other metal. both Pt and Ir occur in perceptibly greater copiousness at the site of big meteorite impacts. This can be explained by the fact that the moon on and other extraterrestrial organic structures particularly meteorites incorporate a much higher copiousness of Pt and Ir than any topographic point on this planet. On Earth, Pt combined with other PGMs are frequently found in alluvial sedimentations. Some little Pt militias located in northeastern America include the Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada, and the Absaroka Mountain scope in Montana.Uses of PlatinumPlatinum is a various metal that is really immune to staining, doing it another metal that is ideally suited for jewellery. It besides has first-class catalytic and electrical belongingss. Platinum has many utilizations in the chemical industry as a accelerator, and is used often in the production of fertilisers and explosives. Platinum even plays a function in the crude oil industry, in the refinement of petroleum oil and the production of gasolene. Harmonizing to the USGS, since 1979, the automotive industry has been the primary user of all PGMs, particularly Pt. PGMs are u sed often in catalytic convertors to keep acceptable exhaust rise criterions. Platinum is a common metal used in jewellery industry and watch-making.Domestic Supply of Platinum and Other PGMsThe lone two runing PGM mines in the U.S. as of 2009 were the Stillwater and East-Boulder mines in Montana. Combined, these mines produced 3,800 dozenss of Pt, 12,500 dozenss of Pd, and 1,300 dozenss of Ir in 2009. Small sums of PGMs may frequently be recovered from Cu excavation processes and, as with most metals, PGMs are recovered and recycled from other bit metal. Approximately 18 dozenss of PGMs were recovered in this mode last twelvemonth. About 900,000 dozenss of PGMs are presently in militias this means that they could be extracted for economic intents at a clip of much greater demand. Estimates of militias merely see the stuff that can realistically be recovered.The worsening economic system over the last few old ages has caused a reduced demand in car gross revenues, which in submit has caused less of a demand in PGMs since they are widely used in autos catalytic convertors. However, as research continues for the usage of fuel cells in autos, the demand for PGMs may increase once more Pd is an cheap option to platinum in the accelerators of such autos.Import Beginnings of Platinum and Other PGMsThe USGS provides a dislocation of imported PGMs from other economically of import statesPlatinumSouth Africa 27 %Germany 17 %U.K. 12 %Canada 5 %Other 39 %PalladiumRussia 46 %South Africa 21 %U.K. 17 %Belgium 4 %Other 12 %Beginnings and Uses of PalladiumBeginning and Beginnings of PalladiumPalladium ( atomic symbol Pd ) is another PGM considered to be a rare component. It is pale Ag in colour, bearing a close resemblance to platinum but with a much lower denseness and runing point. In fact, out of all the PGMs, Pd exhibits both the lowest denseness and runing point. Ore sedimentations of Pd are non common, but like the Pt, Pd has been found in its highest c opiousness in the Bushveld Complex of South Africa. In brotherhood America, it can be found in the Sudbury Basin in Ontario and the Stillwater Complex in Montana.These composites are known put pyrogenic invasions ( LIIs ) or layered mafic in bankions ( LMIs ) . These abbreviations can be used interchangeably, since mafic is a descriptive term for an pyrogenic stone that is dark in colour and rich in Fe and Mg. LIIs are big, superimposed organic structures of pyrogenic stone found in ancient cratons. A craton is a really old, stable subdivision of the Continental crust. The formation of LMIs requires a big volume of magma over a short period of clip, happening within the Continental crust so that they at long last become exposed at the surface due to eroding. Layering of these invasions occurs from alterations in mineralogy and texture. Most LMIs, including the Bushveld Complex and Sudbury Basin, are Precambrian in age. ( The Precambrian encompasses the creative activity of ea rth 4.6 billion old ages ago to about 542 million old ages ago. Precambrian minerals and stones are the oldest on Earth. )Uses of PalladiumPalladium s chief usage today is in catalytic convertors, due to its really stable electrical belongingss and best catalytic belongingss. This metal is used to fabricate medical and dental medicine equipment aircraft flicker stopper, and, like Pt, jewellery and tickers. It makes a good jewellery replacement for white gold and Pt, particularly since its picket Ag colour is natural and it is reasonably hard to state the three metals apart merely by looking at them. Up until comparatively late, Pd s chief usage in the jewellery trade was as an metal to assistance in doing white gold. In the electronic industry, Pd and palladium-silver metals are used to do platings in common electronics. Palladium, every bit good as the other cherished metals, is particularly of import in electronics because of how frequently computing machines are used in merely a bout every facet of life today in occupations, research, schools, and places. Metallic elements with prime(prenominal) electrical belongingss are used to do computing machine french friess implemented in CPUs, cell phones, and iPods, merely to call a few devices most people use day-to-day.Palladium can be one of the by-products of atomic fission, and can be recovered though non postulatefully in important sums from spend atomic fuel.Beginnings and Uses of atomic number 77Beginning and Beginnings of IridiumIridium ( atomic symbol Ir ) is the 3rd most familiar and widely-used PGM. Although it is highly rare in the Earth s crust, hint sums can still be found. Iridium is a well-known PGM due to its abnormally high concentration in a chouse of clay at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary ( normally abbreviated as the K-T boundary ) . As celebrated earlier in my testimony, Ir ( along with Pt ) is found at much higher concentrations in meteorites than anyplace on Earth this cognition is one of the cardinal pieces of back uping grounds for a meteorite impact at the terminal of the Cretaceous Period ( about 65 million old ages ago ) , which finally would hold caused the dinosaurs to travel extinct. One of the rarest elements on Earth, Ir occurs at 0.001 ppm in the Earth s crust whereas in meteorites, the concentration is significantly greater at 0.5 ppm. As with Pt and Pd, the highest concentrations of Ir are found in the Bushveld Complex in South Africa. Very little sums of this metal are found in the U.S. and the remainder of the universe, most notably in impact crater and pyrogenic invasions. Along with its other PGM relations, Ir is often found in Cu and nickel metal. Since all three of these cherished metals portion similar strong-arm and chemical features, it comes as no surprise that they are normally found together and portion similar utilizations in industry and fabrication patterns.Uses of IridiumIridium is acquired through the excavation processes of Ni and Cu, and is a by-product of the two. As with Pt, Ir is really immune to corrosion and wear, so it finds many utilizations in assorted industries. Iridium by itself is used in direct-ignition engines, where its first-class catalytic belongingss come in utile and let the engines to run decently.Natural Substitutes for Cherished Metallic elementsWith the possibility of our cherished metals resources going depleted, we are now duty touring even more towards the usage of naturally-occurring replacements for these peculiar metals. Silver and PGMs make suited replacements for gold, particularly in the industry of jewellery. Harmonizing to the USGS, idea metals reinforced by gold metals have excellent usage in electronics. This method is besides used in jewellery, and allows a jewelry maker to transport the merchandise as gold while utilizing less of the metal itself.Stainless steel is a common replacement for Ag. In fact, most mean kitchen utensils are no longer made of Ag a spee dy hunt for silverware on any common shopping web site will manifest that most kitchen utensils are made of unstained steel instead than Ag. In picture taking, many factors now contribute to the cutback of Ag usage, including movie with diminished Ag content and digital picture taking. Aluminum and Rh are normally used to replace Ag in mirrors and other brooding surfaces.Many of the common PGMs frequently substitute for each other. For illustration, some car shapers have begun utilizing Pd in topographic point of Pt which is more expensive in catalytic convertors. Additionally, shapers of electronic constituents are cut downing the sum of Pd used by replacing base metals or silver-palladium metals that contain somewhat less Pd.We can surely populate without jewellery, but in such a technology-dominated society, we about can non populate without electronics, particularly computing machines and, although it works for some people, it would be fantastic to believe we can populate without cars. Therefore, it is particularly of import to be cognizant of the supply of, and replacements for, cherished metals, since they are used on a regular footing in these facets of life.Recommendations for Policy Related to Cherished Metallic elementsAn appraisal of critical minerals conducted by the National Research Council in 2008 offered basic suggestions that can be use to cherished metals every bit goodIdentify critical metals and merchandises made from them that are important to industry and engineering.Address the beginnings of cherished metals and the planetary production/use of their terminal merchandises.Address any geologic, technologic, economic or political restrictions on the handiness of cherished metals.Acknowledge the effects of any breaks in the supply of cherished metals in the economic system and work force.These recommendations serve as a foundation and a starting point for farther research on cherished metal use how they are acquired, when and why the y might run out, the effects of acquisition ( excavation ) and what the U.S. authorities can make to turn to these issues.Our state s metal resources are limited and will finally run out. Unlike fresh H2O, which is easy recycled thanks to H2O renewal workss, the per centum of metals we get from recycling is littler than the per centum we attain from excavation. Mineral formation is a slow geologic procedure, so the refilling of these resources any clip in the close hereafter is non even an archetype to see. Logically, if we mine at a faster gait than that at which the minerals are of course replaced, finally these resources will be depleted. For the clip being, we are able to trust on other states to export cherished metals to the U.S. , but their resources are limited as good. We impoverishment to take action to guarantee that we preserve these resources. As I have discussed in this testimony, these cherished metals serve a broad array of intents, and it would be a shame for them to run out in our life-time, which is a possibility. We need to measure how long we have before our resources run out. Government bureaus that deal with mineral issues, such as the U.S. Geological Survey, are responsible for carry oning mineral resource appraisals and mineral-environmental appraisals. These appraisals can help the Bureau of Land Management and U.S. Forest Service to better manage land usage for excavation intents.The Mineral pick Program ( MRP ) of the USGS is in charge of supplying information and research about the usage and supply of our minerals, including cherished metals. In 2003, the National Research Council ( NRC ) addressed quaternion undertakings of the federal authorities in mineral scientific disciplinesSupply an indifferent beginning of information, accessible to the populace.Conduct general research on mineral resources. substitute of minerals-related international activities that benefit the U.S.Advise, when necessary, on minerals use and directio n.The MRP besides takes into history the sum of undiscovered metals that are likely located in an country. When an initial study was undefiled as portion of the MRP, the USGS admitted that it was during a clip of significant passage within the bureau this included decrease in staff members, important restructuring of the Geologic Division, decrease in installations, and alterations both in ends and leading all marks that more updated appraisals of our metal resources need to take topographic point. A new MRP survey should turn to our state s present and long-run metal demands. The precedence for an updated survey should be to supply scientific evidences that would let for informed decision-making as to how much of the state s land should go on to be used for excavation, and how we can run into future metal demands despite low resources in the U.S.Mining minerals and metals has negatively charged impacts on the environment. When metals are mined, important sums of toxins are rele ased into the environment, particularly into the dirt and groundwater. Pollution of dirt and H2O is considered secondary taint, and is damaging to agriculture and works life, every bit good as our imbibing H2O supply. The processing and refinement on metal ores can besides foul the air. In recent old ages, with subjects like planetary clime alteration taking centre phase, environmental impacts of merely about anything should ever be taken into history. Consideration of environmental effects is of import in guaranting that land is non overused for mining even more than it is overused for other patterns such as agribusiness. Furthermore, it would be good to analyze how metal sedimentations behave geochemically when exposed to long-suffering procedures, every bit good as the environmental effects of these reactions. If this affair contributes at all to the lessening in our mineral supply, research on the military issue may let us to forestall this lessening. A new MRP survey should s ketch possible results of environmental impacts of metal excavation, which should be taken into consideration by the BLM when doing land-use determinations.Additionally, research demands to research the possibility of utilizing man-made ( semisynthetic ) substitutes for these cherished metals. When makers want to be use replacements for a certain metal, they by and large use a different naturally-occurring metal. Since we are at hazard of utilizing up our metal resources, it would be good to develop man-made versions of gold, Ag, and PGMs. These replacements should possess the same desirable qualities, including catalytic and electrical conduction.Another manner to cut back on metals usage is to recycle. Many states, including the U.S. , already used recycled stuff from bit metal, but merely little per centums of metals used today come from recycled beginnings. In 2009, 190 dozenss of gold came from recycled bit metal in the U.S. , compared to 210 dozenss mined. Merely 17,000 kgs ( merely 17 metric dozenss ) of PGMs were recovered from bit metal in the U.S. last twelvemonth, compared to 16,300 dozenss that came from mines. The exclusion is silver in 2009, 1,500 dozenss of Ag in the U.S. came from recycled stuff, exceling the 1,230 dozenss that were mined. Even though metals are recycled, bureaus like the USGS can rede makers on new slipway to retrieve even more material from bit metal. Metal processing workss should besides work to implement new ways of treating natural mined metals so that less of the metals are lost before being refined into the concluding merchandise. Not merely would that scheme be economical, but it would be much less uneconomical excessively. Development and execution of synthetics, increased recycling, and more efficient metals treating might someday even let the U.S. to halt excavation all together, which in bend would cut down any harmful effects on the environment.The USGS, and any other federal organisations chosen to roll up and f orm critical minerals informations, should hold more authorization when it comes to policies affecting the recovery and usage of cherished metals. Surveies to better our usage of metals, as outlined above, should have the proper support, and multiple federal bureaus need to work together to spread out basic scientific research, and to advance the usage of new thoughts and engineering to better understand the effects, effects, and benefits of cherished metal use. closingCherished metals specifically gold, Ag, and the platinum-group metals serve many valuable intents in our economic system and our day-to-day lives. But merely as our oil resources will finally run out, so our cherished metals will someday go depleted every bit good. Until farther surveies are conducted, we will go on to be limited in our apprehension of how rapidly these cherished metal resources will run out. We must besides research any possible major environmental injury that may come from mining these metals, and what, if anything, we can make to extenuate such injury.

Advertising Impact

Qupismire Mark E pick up (2009) 7207236 DOI 10. 1007/s11129-009-9066-z The rig of announce on dishonor wittingness and perceive diagnoseence An empirical investigating use instrument panel selective information C. Robert Clark Ulrich Doraszelski Michaela Draganska Received 11 December 2007 / Accepted 2 April 2009 / Published online 8 May 2009 Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009 cop We procedure a panel info beat that combines annual inciter-level publicizing expenditures for oer three hundred rats with measures of smear aw atomic number 18ness and comprehend gauge from a large-scale con marrow squasher contemplate to study the ensn beuate of advertize.Advertising is graveled as a alive(p) investment in a blades stocks of sense and comprehend musical none and we ask how such an investment switch overs inciter aw beness and spirit perceptions. Our panel data entrust us to control for unobserved heterogeneousness crossways differentiat es and to identify the strength of advertizing from the time-series disagreement within brands. They also all in allow us to account for the endogeneity of publicize through recently developed slashing panel data estimation techniques. We ? nd that advertisement has consistently a signi? ceaset despotic effect on brand cognizance plainly no signi? ant effect on comprehend step. Keywords Advertising Brand aw arness comprehend lumber Dynamic panel data methods JEL Classi? cation L15 C23 H37 C. R. Clark Institute of Applied Economics, HEC Montreal and CIRPEE, 3000 Chemin de la Cote-Sainte-Catherine, Montreal, Quebec H3T 2A7, Canada electronic mail robert. emailprotected ca U. Doraszelski Department of Economics, Harvard University, 1805 Cambridge Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA e-mail emailprotected edu ) M. Draganska (B Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-5015, USA e-mail emailprotected tanford. edu 208 C. R. Clark et al. 1 Introdu ction In 2006 more(prenominal) than $280 cardinal were spent on advertising in the U. S. , well above 2% of GDP. By investing in advertising, grocery storeers aim to encourage consumers to contract their brand. For a consumer to choose a brand, cardinal conditions must be satis? ed First, the brand must be in her choice set. Second, the brand must be preferred e truly tush all the other brands in her choice set. Advertising whitethorn facilitate one or some(prenominal) of these conditions. In this research we empirically investigate how advertising fall upons these ii conditions.To disentangle the impact on choice set from that on preferences, we use actual measures of the level of information possessed by consumers more or less a large number of brands and of their quality perceptions. We compile a panel data set that combines annual brand-level advertising expenditures with data from a large-scale consumer survey, in which respondents were asked to charge whether they w ere aw atomic number 18 of different brands and, if so, to rate them in terms of quality. These data offer the unique opportunity to study the role of advertising for a wide redact of brands across a number of different product categories.The awargonness score measures how well consumers atomic number 18 informed intimately the existence and the availability of a brand and hence captures straightaway the extent to which the brand is part of consumers choice sets. The quality rating measures the degree of subjective vertical product differentiation in the common sense that consumers are led to perceive the advertised brand as being better. Hence, our data allow us to investigate the relationship surrounded by advertising and two important dimensions of consumer knowledge.The behavioral literature in marketing has highlighted the same two dimensions in the form of the size of it of the conside symme elbow greasen set and the relative strength of preferences (Nedungadi 1990 Mit ra and lynch 1995). It is, of course, possible that advertising also involves other aspects of consumer knowledge. For example, advertising whitethorn generate some form of subjective even product differentiation that is unlikely to be re? ected in either brand ken or comprehend quality. In a recent physical composition Erdem et al. (2008), however, report that advertising localizees on horizontal attributes only for one out of the 19 brands examined.Understanding the channel through which advertising affects consumer choice is important for researchers and practitioners alike for several motives. For example, Suttons (1991) bounds on assiduity concentration in large markets implicitly assume that advertising increases consumers willingness to pay by altering quality perceptions. While pro? ts increase in perceive quality, they may decrease in brand awareness (Fershtman and Muller 1993 Boyer and Moreaux 1999), thereby stalling the competitive escalation in advertising at t he heart of the endogenous change posture cost theory.More everyplace, Doraszelski and Markovich (2007) show that even in small markets industry dynamics can be very different depending on the nature of advertising. From an empirical perspective, when estimating a demand model, advertising could be modeled inwardness of advertising on brand awareness and comprehend quality 209 as affecting the choice set or as affecting the utility that the consumer derives from a brand. If the role of advertising is mis conductnly speci? ed as affecting quality perceptions (i. e. , preferences) rather than brand awareness as it often is, then the estimated parameters may be biased.In her study of the U. S. personal rater industry, Sovinsky Goeree (2008) ? nds that traditional demand models overstate price elasticities because they assume that consumers are aware ofand hence choose amongall brands in the market when in actuality most consumers are aware of only a small fraction of brands. For our empirical compend we develop a dynamic estimation framework. Brand awareness and perceive quality are naturally viewed as stocks that are built up over time in response to advertising (Nerlove and Arrow 1962).At the same time, these stocks depreciate as consumers forget past advertising drifts or as an old campaign is superseded by a newly campaign. Advertising can thus be thought of as an investment in brand awareness and perceived quality. The dynamic nature of advertising leads us to a dynamic panel data model. In estimating this model we demo two important problems, namely unobserved heterogeneity across brands and the potential endogeneity of advertising. We discuss these below. When estimating the effect of advertising across brands we need to keep in mind that they are different in many respects.Unobserved factors that affect both advertising expenditures and the stocks of perceived quality and awareness may lead to gilded positive estimates of the effect of advertis ing. Put differently, if we detect an effect of advertising, then we can non be sure if this effect is causal in the sense that higher advertising expenditures lead to higher brand awareness and perceived quality or if it is spurious in the sense that different brands pay off different stocks of perceived quality and awareness as well as advertising expenditures.For example, although in our data the brands in the fast food house on average stir high advertising and high awareness and the brands in the cosmetics and fragrances category hire low advertising and low awareness, we can non infer that advertising boosts awareness. We can only conclude that the relationship amid advertising expenditures, perceived quality, and brand awareness differs from category to category or even from brand to brand. Much of the existing literature uses cross-sectional data to discern a relationship between advertising expenditures and perceived quality (e. g. Kirmani and W proficient 1989 Kirmani 1990 Moorthy and Zhao 2000 Moorthy and Hawkins 2005) in an attempt to exam the idea that consumers draw inferences about the brands quality from the amount that is spent on advertising it (Nelson 1974 Milgrom and Roberts 1986 Tellis and Fornell 1988). With cross-sectional data it is dif? cult to account for unobserved heterogeneity across brands. Indeed, if we neglect permanent differences between brands, then we ? nd that both brand awareness and perceived quality are positively correlated with advertising expenditures, thereby replicating the earlier studies.Once we make full use of our panel data and account for unobserved 210 C. R. Clark et al. heterogeneity, however, the effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality disappears. 1 Our estimation equations are dynamic relationships between a brands design stocks of perceived quality and awareness on the left-hand side and the brands previous stocks of perceived quality and awareness as well as its own and its rival s advertising expenditures on the rightfield side. In this context, endogeneity arises for two reasons.First, the lagged dependent variables are by construction correlated with all past error terms and accordingly endogenous. As a consequence, traditional ? xed-effect methods are necessarily inconsistent. 2 Second, advertising expenditures may also be endogenous for economic reasons. For instance, media coverage such as news reports may affect brand awareness and perceived quality beyond the amount spent on advertising. To the extent that these shocks to the stocks of perceived quality and awareness of a brand move over back into decisions about advertising, say because the brand manager opts to advertise less if a news report has generated suf? ient awareness, they give rise to an endogeneity problem. To resolve the endogeneity problem we use the dynamic panel data methods developed by Arellano and chemical bond (1991), Arellano and Bover (1995), and Blundell and Bond (1998). T he key advantage is that these methods do non intrust on the availability of stringently exogenous explanatory variables or instruments. This is an appealing methodology that has been widely applied (e. g. , Acemoglu and Robinson 2001 Durlauf et al. 2005 Zhang and Li 2007) because valid instruments are often hard to come by. Further, since these methods involve ? st differencing, they allow us to control for unobserved factors that affect both advertising expenditures and the stocks of perceived quality and awareness and may lead to spurious positive estimates of the effect of advertising. In addition, our approach allows for factors other than advertising to affect a brands stock of perceived quality and awareness to the extent that these factors are constant over time. Our main ? nding is that advertising expenditures have a signi? coin bank positive effect on brand awareness but no signi? cant effect on perceived quality.These progenys appear to be robust across a wide range of speci? cations. Since awareness is the most basic kind of information a consumer can have for a brand, we conclude that an important role of advertising is information provision. On the other hand, our results indicate that advertising is not likely to alter consumers quality perceptions. This conclusion calls for a reexamination of the implicit assumption underlying Suttons (1991) endogenous sunk cost theory. It also suggests that advertising should be modeled as affecting the choice set and not average utility when estimating demand.Finally, our ? ndings lend empirical 1 Another way to get around this issue is to mob an experimental approach, as in Mitra and Lynch (1995). 2 This source of endogeneity is not tied to advertising in particular rather it always arises in estimating dynamic relationships in the presence of unobserved heterogeneity. An exception is the (rather unusual) panel-data setting where one has T ? instead of N ?. In this event the within estimator is c onsistent (Bond 2002, p. 5). loading of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 211 upport to the view that advertising is generally procompetitive because it disseminates information about the existence, the price, and the attributes of products more widely among consumers (Stigler 1961 Telser 1964 Nelson 1970, 1974). The remainder of the paper proceeds as follows. In Sections 2 and 3 we explain the dynamic investment model and the corresponding empirical strategy. In Section 4 we learn the data and in Section 5 we present the results of the empirical analysis. Section 6 concludes. 2 Model speci? cation We develop an empirical model based on the classic advertising-as-investment model of Nerlove and Arrow (1962).Related empirical models are the basis of current research on advertising (e. g. , Naik et al. 1998 Dube et al. 2005 Doganoglu and Klapper 2006 Bass et al. 2007). Naik et al. (1998), in particular, ? nd that the Nerlove and Arrow (1962) model provides a bette r ? t than other models that have been proposed in the literature such as Vidale and Wolfe (1957), Brandaid (Little 1975), Tracker (Blattberg and Golanty 1978), and Litmus (Blackburn and Clancy 1982). We extend the Nerlove and Arrow (1962) framework in two respects. First, we allow a brands stocks of awareness and perceived quality to be stirred by the advertising of its competitors.This approach captures the idea that advertising takes place in a competitive environment where brands vie for the attention of consumers. The advertising of competitors may also be bene? cial to a brand if it draws attention to the intact category and thus expands the relevant market for the brand (e. g. , Nedungadi 1990 Kadiyali 1996). Second, we allow for a stochastic component in the effect of advertising on the stocks of awareness and perceived quality to re? ect the success or failure of an advertising campaign and other unobserved in? uences such as the creative quality of the advertising copy, media selection, or scheduling.More formally, we let Qit be the stock of perceived quality of brand i at the start of period t and Ait the stock of its awareness. We further let Eit? 1 denote the advertising expenditures of brand i over the course of period t ? 1 and E? it? 1 = (E1t? 1 , . . . , Ei? 1t? 1 , Ei+1t? 1 , . . . , Ent? 1 ) the advertising expenditures of its competitors. Then, at the most general level, the stocks of perceived quality and awareness of brand i evolve over time according to the laws of effect Qit = git (Qit? 1 , Eit? 1 , E? it? 1 , ? it ), Ait = hit (Ait? 1 , Eit? 1 , E? it? 1 , ? t ), where git () and hit () are brand- and time-speci? c functions. The idiosyncratic error ? it captures the success or failure of an advertising campaign along with all other omitted factors. For example, the quality of the advertising campaign may publication just as much as the amount spent on it. By recursively substituting 212 C. R. Clark et al. for the lagged stocks of perceived quality and awareness we can write the current stocks as functions of all past advertising expenditures and the current and all past error terms. This shows that these shocks to brand awareness and perceived quality are persistent over time.For example, the effect of a particularly good (or bad) advertising campaign may linger and be felt for some time to come. We model the effect of competitors advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality in two ways. First, we consider a brands share of voice. We use its advertising expenditures, Eit? 1 , relative to the average amount spent on advertising by rival brands in the brands subcategory or category, E? it? 1 . 3 To the extent that brands compete with each other for the attention of consumers, a brand may have to outspend its rivals to cut through the clutter.If so, then what is important may not be the absolute amount spent on advertising but the amount relative to rival brands. Second, we consider the amount of adver tising in the entire market by including the average amount spent on advertising by rival brands in the brands subcategory or category. Advertising is market expanding if it attracts consumers to the entire category but not necessarily to a particular brand. In this way, competitors advertising may have a positive in? uence on, say, brand awareness. Taken together, our estimation equations are Qit = ? i + ? t + ? Qit? 1 + f (Eit? 1 , E? it? 1 ) + ? t , Ait = ? i + ? t + ? Ait? 1 + f (Eit? 1 , E? it? 1 ) + ? it . (1) (2) Here ? i is a brand effect that captures unobserved heterogeneity across brands and ? t is a time effect to control for possible systematic changes over time. The time effect may capture, for example, that consumers are systematically informed about a larger number of brands referable to the advent of the internet and other alternative media channels. Through the brand effect we allow for factors other than advertising to affect a brands stocks of perceived quality and awareness to the extent that these factors are constant over time.For example, consumers may hear about a brand and their quality perceptions may be affected by word of mouth. Similarly, it may well be the fact that consumers in the process of purchasing a brand become more informed about it and that their quality perceptions change, especially for high-involvement brands. Prior to purchasing a car, say, many consumers engage in research about the set of available cars and their respective characteristics, including quality ratings from sources such as car magazines and Consumer Reports.If these effects do not vary over time, then we fully account for them in our estimation because the dynamic panel data methods we employ involve ? rst differencing. The parameter ? measures how much of last periods stocks of perceived quality and awareness are carried forward into this periods stocks 1 ? ? can 3 The Brandweek Superbrands survey reports on only the top brands (in terms of sales ) in each subcategory or category. The number of brands varies from 3 for some subcategories to 10 for others. We therefore use the average, rather than the sum, of competitors advertising. takings of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 213 therefore be interpreted as the rate of wear and tear of these stocks. watch that in the estimation we allow all parameters to be different across our estimation equations. For example, we do not presume that the carryover rates for perceived quality and brand awareness are the same. The function f () represents the response of brand awareness and perceived quality to the advertising expenditures of the brand and potentially also those of its rivals. In the simplest case absent contestation we specify this function as 2 f (Eit? ) = ? 1 Eit? 1 + ? 2 Eit? 1 . This functional form is ? exible in that it allows for a nonlinear effect of advertising expenditures but does not impose one. Later on in Section 5. 6 we demonstrate the r obustness of our results by considering a number of additional functional forms. To account for competition in the share-of-voice speci? cation, we set f Eit? 1 , E? it? 1 = ? 1 Eit? 1 E? it? 1 + ? 2 Eit? 1 E? it? 1 2 and in the total-advertising speci? cation, we set 2 f Eit? 1 , E? it? 1 = ? 1 Eit? 1 + ? 2 Eit? 1 + ? 3 E? it? 1 . Estimation strategy Equations 1 and 2 are dynamic relationships that feature lagged dependent variables on the right-hand side. When estimating, we confront the problems of unobserved heterogeneity across brands and the endogeneity of advertising. In our panel-data setting, ignoring unobserved heterogeneity is akin to dropping the brand effect ? i from Eqs. 1 and 2 and then estimating them by ordinary least squares. Since this approach relies on both cross-sectional and time-series sport to identify the effect of advertising, we refer to it as pooled OLS (POLS) in what follows.To account for unobserved heterogeneity we include a brand effect ? i and use the within estimator that treats ? i as a ? xed effect. We follow the usual convention in microeconomic applications that the term ? xed effect does not necessarily mean that the effect is being treated as nonrandom rather it agent that we are allowing for tyrannical correlation between the unobserved brand effect and the observed explanatory variables (Wooldridge 2002, p. 251). The within estimator eliminates the brand effect by subtracting the within-brand mean from Eqs. 1 and 2. Hence, the identi? ation of the hawk parameters that determine the effect of advertising relies whole on variation over time within brands the information in the between-brand cross-sectional relationship is not used. We refer to this approach as ? xed effects (FE). While FE accounts for unobserved heterogeneity, it suffers from an endogeneity problem. In our panel-data setting, endogeneity arises for two reasons. First, since Eqs. 1 and 2 are inherently dynamic, the lagged stocks of perceived 214 C. R. Clark et al. quality and awareness may be endogenous. More formally, Qit? 1 and Ait? 1 are by construction correlated with ? s for s t. The within estimator subtracts the within-brand mean from Eqs. 1 and 2. The resulting regressor, say Qit? 1 ? Qi in the case of perceived quality, is correlated with the error term ? it ? ?i since ? i contains ? it? 1 along with all higher-order lags. Hence, FE is necessarily inconsistent. Second, advertising expenditures may also be endogenous for economic reasons. For instance, media coverage such as news reports may directly affect brand awareness and perceived quality. Our model treats media coverage other than advertising as shocks to the stocks of perceived quality and awareness.To the extent that these shocks feed back into decisions about advertising, say because the brand manager opts to advertise less if a news report has generated suf? cient awareness, they give rise to an endogeneity problem. More formally, it is reasonable to assume that Eit? 1 , the advertising expenditures of brand i over the course of period t ? 1, are chosen at the beginning of period t ? 1 with knowledge of ? it? 1 and higher-order lags and that therefore Eit? 1 is correlated with ? is for s t. We apply the dynamic panel-data method proposed by Arellano and Bond (1991) to deal with both unobserved heterogeneity and endogeneity.This methodology has the advantage that it does not rely on the availability of strictly exogenous explanatory variables or instruments. This is welcome because instruments are often hard to come by, especially in panel-data settings The problem is ? nding a variable that is a good forecaster of advertising expenditures and is uncorrelated with shocks to brand awareness and perceived quality ? nding a variable that is a good predictor of lagged brand awareness and perceived quality and uncorrelated with current shocks to brand awareness and perceived quality is even less obvious.The key idea of Arellano and Bond ( 1991) is that if the error terms are serially uncorrelated, then lagged values of the dependent variable and lagged values of the endogenous right-hand-side variables represent valid instruments. To see this, take ? rst differences of Eq. 1 to obtain Qit ? Qit? 1 = (? t ? ?t? 1 ) + ? (Qit? 1 ? Qit? 2 ) + f (Eit? 1 ) ? f (Eit? 2 ) + (? it ? ?it? 1 ), (3) where we abstract from competition to alter the notation. Eliminating the brand effect ? i accounts for unobserved heterogeneity between brands. The remaining problem with estimating Eq. 3 by least-squares is that Qit? 1 ? Qit? is by construction correlated with ? it ? ?it? 1 since Qit? 1 is correlated with ? it? 1 by virtue of Eq. 1. Moreover, as we have discussed above, Eit? 1 may also be correlated with ? it? 1 for economic reasons. We take advantage of the fact that we have observations on a number of periods in order to come up with instruments for the endogenous variables. In particular, this is possible starting in the third period where Eq. 3 becomes Qi3 ? Qi2 = (? 3 ? ?2 ) + ? (Qi2 ? Qi1 ) + f (Ei2 ) ? f (Ei1 ) + (? i3 ? ?i2 ). Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 215 In this case Qi1 is a valid instrument for (Qi2 ?Qi1 ) since it is correlated with (Qi2 ? Qi1 ) but uncorrelated with (? i3 ? ?i2 ) and, similarly, Ei1 is a valid instrument for ( f (Ei2 ) ? f (Ei1 )). In the fourth period Qi1 and Qi2 are both valid instruments since neither is correlated with (? i4 ? ?i3 ) and, similarly, Ei1 and Ei2 are both valid instruments. In general, for lagged dependent variables and for endogenous right-hand-side variables, levels of these variables that are lagged two or more periods are valid instruments. This allows us to generate more instruments for later periods. The resulting estimator is referred to as difference GMM (DGMM).A potential dif? culty with the DGMM estimator is that lagged levels may be poor instruments for ? rst differences when the underlying variables are highly p ersistent over time. Arellano and Bover (1995) and Blundell and Bond (1998) propose an augmented estimator in which the original equations in levels are added to the system. The idea is to create a stacked data set containing differences and levels and then to instrument differences with levels and levels with differences. The prayd assumption is that brand effects are uncorrelated with changes in advertising expenditures.This estimator is commonly referred to as system GMM (SGMM). In Section 5 we report and compare results for DGMM and SGMM. It is important to test the validity of the instruments proposed above. Following Arellano and Bond (1991) we report a Hansen J test for overidentifying restrictions. This test examines whether the instruments are jointly exogenous. We also report the so-called difference-in-Hansen J test to examine speci? cally whether the additional instruments for the level equations used in SGMM (but not in DGMM) are valid. Arellano and Bond (1991) furthe r develop a test for second-order serial correlation in the ? st differences of the error terms. As describe above, both GMM estimators require that the levels of the error terms be serially uncorrelated, implying that the ? rst differences are serially correlated of at most ? rst order. We caution the reader that the test for second-order serial correlation is formally only de? ned if the number of periods in the sample is greater than or have-to doe with to 5 whereas we observe a brand on average for just 4. 2 periods in our application. Our preliminary estimates suggest that the error terms are unlikely to be serially uncorrelated as required by Arellano and Bond (1991).The AR(2) test described above indicates ? rst-order serial correlation in the error terms. An AR(3) test for third-order serial correlation in the ? rst differences of the error terms, however, indicates the absence of second-order serial correlation in the error terms. 4 In this case, Qit? 2 and Eit? 2 are no l onger valid instruments for Eq. 3. Intuitively, because Qit? 2 is correlated with ? it? 2 by virtue of Eq. 1 and ? it? 2 is correlated with ? it? 1 by ? rst-order serial correlation, Qit? 2 is correlated 4 Of course, the AR(3) test uses less observations than the AR(2) test and is therefore also less powerful. 16 C. R. Clark et al. with ? it? 1 in Eq. 3, and similarly for Eit? 2 . Fortunately, however, Qit? 3 and Eit? 3 remain valid instruments because ? it? 3 is uncorrelated with ? it? 1 . We carry out the DGMM and SGMM estimation use STATAs xtabond2 routine (Roodman 2007). We embark third and higher lags of either brand awareness or perceived quality, together with third and higher lags of advertising expenditures as instruments. In addition to these GMM-style instruments, for the difference equations we enter the time dummies as IV-style instruments. We also apply the ? ite-sample correction proposed by Windmeijer (2005) which corrects for the two-step covariance matrix and sub stantially increases the ef? ciency of both GMM estimators. Finally, we compute standard errors that are robust to heteroskedasticity and arbitrary patterns of serial correlation within brands. 4 Data Our data are derived from the Brandweek Superbrands surveys from 2000 to 2005. Each divisions survey lists the top brands in terms of sales during the past year from 25 broad categories. Inside these categories are often a number of more narrowly de? ned subcategories. plank 1 lists the categories along with their subcategories.The surveys report perceived quality and awareness scores for the current year and the advertising expenditures for the previous year by brand. Perceived quality and awareness scores are calculated by Harris Interactive in their Equitrend brand-equity study. Each year Harris Interactive surveys online between 20, 000 and 45, 000 consumers aged 15 geezerhood and older in order to determine their perceptions of a brands quality and its level of awareness for ap proximately 1, 000 brands. 5 To ensure that the respondents accurately re? ect the general population their responses are propensity weighted. Each respondent rates around 80 of these brands.Perceived quality is measured on a 010 scale, with 0 meaning unacceptable/poor and 10 meaning outstanding/ excessordinary. Awareness scores vary between 0 and 100 and equal the percentage of respondents that can rate the brands quality. The quality rating is therefore conditional on the respondent being aware of the brand. 6 5 The exact wording of the question is We will display for you a list of brands and we are asking you to rate the overall quality of each brand using a 0 to 10 scale, where 0 means Unacceptable/Poor Quality, 5 means Quite Acceptable Quality and 10 means Outstanding/ Extraordinary Quality.You may use any number from 0 to 10 to rate the brands, or use 99 for No picture option if you have absolutely no opinion about the brand. Panelists are being incentivized through sweepst akes on a periodic basis but are not paid for a particular survey. 6 The 2000 Superbrands survey does not separately report perceived quality and salience scores. We received these scores directly from Harris Interactive. 2000 is the ? rst year for which we have been able to obtain perceived quality and salience scores for a large number of brands.Starting with the 2004 and 2005 Superbrands surveys, salience is replaced by a new measure called familiarity. For these two years we received salience scores directly from Harris Interactive. The contemporaneous correlation between salience and familiarity is 0. 98 and signi? cant with a p-value of 0. 000. Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality Table 1 Categories and subcategories 1. Apparel 2. Appliances 3. Automobiles a. general automobiles b. luxury c. subcompact d. sedan/wagon e. trucks/suvs/vans 4. Beer, wine, spirits a. beer b. wine c. malternatives d. iquor 5. Beverages a. general b. new age/sports/ water 6. Computers a. software b. hardware 7. Consumer electronics 8. Cosmetics and fragrances a. color cosmetics b. eye color c. lip color d. womens fragrances e. mens fragrances 9. conviction tease 10. Entertainment 11. Fast food 12. Financial services 13. Food a. ready to eat cereal b. cereal bars c. cookies d. cheese e. cockamamy f. salted snacks g. frozen dinners and entrees Items in italics have been removed 217 h. frozen pizza i. spaghetti sauce j. coffee k. ice cream l. keep orange juice m. refrigerated yogurt n. oy drinks o. luncheon meats p. meat alternatives q. baby formula/electrolyte solutions r. pourable salad dressing 14. Footwear 15. Health and beauty a. bar soap b. toothpaste c. shampoo d. hair color 16. kinsperson a. cleaner b. laundry detergents c. diapers d. facial tissue e. toilet tissue f. automatic dishwater detergent 17. Petrol a. oil companies b. automotive aftercare/lube 18. Pharmaceutical OTC a. allergy/cold medicine b. stomach/antacids c. analgesics 19. P harmaceutical prescription 20. Retail 21. Telecommunications 22. Tobacco 23. Toys 24. perish 25. World Wide WebWe supplement the awareness and quality measures with advertising expenditures that are taken from TNS Media Intelligence and Competitive Media Reporting. These advertising expenditures encompass spending in a wide range of media Magazines (consumer magazines, Sunday magazines, local magazines, and business-to-business magazines), newspaper (local and national newspapers), video (network TV, spot TV, syndicated TV, and network cable TV), radio (network, national spot, and local), Spanish-language media (magazines, newspapers, and TV networks), internet, and outdoor.After eliminating categories and subcategories where observations are not at the brand level (apparel, entertainment, ? nancial services, retail, world wide web) or where the data are suspect (tobacco), we are left with 19 categories (see again Table 1). We then drop all private labels and all brands for which 218 C. R. Clark et al. we do not have perceived quality and awareness scores as well as advertising expenditures for at least two years running. This leaves us with 348 brands. Table 2 contains descriptive statistics for the overall sample and also by category. In the overall sample the average awareness score is 69. 5 and the average perceived quality score is 6. 36. The average amount spent on advertising is around $66 trillion per year. There is substantial variation in these measures across categories. The variation in perceived quality (coef? cient of variation is 0. 11 overall, ranging from 0. 04 for appliances to 0. 13 for computers) tends to be lower than the variation in brand awareness (coef? cient of variation is 0. 28 overall, ranging from 0. 05 for appliances to 0. 46 for telecommunications), in line with the fact the quality rating is conditional on the respondent being aware of the brand.The contemporaneous correlation between brand awareness and perceived quality is 0. 60 and signi? cant with a p-value of 0. 000. The contemporaneous correlation between advertising expenditures and the change in brand awareness is 0. 0488 and signi? cant with a p-value of 0. 0985 and the contemporaneous correlation between advertising expenditures and the change in perceived quality is 0. 0718 and signi? cant with a p-value of 0. 0150. These correlations anticipate the spurious correlation between both brand awareness and perceived quality and advertising expenditures if permanent differences between brands are neglected (POLS estimator).We will see though that the effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality Table 2 Descriptive statistics obs brands Brand awareness Perceived Advertising (0100) quality (010) ($1,000,000) basal Std. dev. Mean Std. dev. Mean Std. dev. Overall Appliances Automobiles Beer, wine, hard drink Beverages Computers Consumer electronics Cosmetics and fragrances Credit cards Fast food Food Footwear Health and beauty Househol d Petrol Pharmaceutical OTC Pharmaceutical prescription Telecommunications Toys Travel 1,478 348 21 137 98 95 79 29 70 29 60 247 38 54 128 48 56 31 52 25 181 4 30 24 22 17 7 19 6 12 65 8 11 31 13 15 10 11 5 38 69. 5 85. 09 67. 81 62. 23 84. 57 59. 80 67. 83 49. 37 70. 97 93. 83 80. 18 64. 95 82. 50 73. 83 60. 52 76. 96 29. 97 49. 33 72. 12 59. 48 19. 43 4. 54 6. 72 10. 13 13. 84 23. 05 18. 68 15. 75 18. 08 5. 32 14. 94 18. 98 9. 80 16. 03 17. 19 13. 89 9. 69 22. 86 9. 74 15. 43 6. 36 7. 35 6. 51 5. 68 6. 51 6. 41 6. 60 5. 83 6. 24 6. 28 6. 66 6. 39 6. 67 6. 66 5. 95 6. 79 5. 54 5. 28 6. 95 6. 26 0. 70 0. 32 0. 59 0. 72 0. 58 0. 81 0. 73 0. 52 0. 73 0. 42 0. 65 0. 42 0. 41 0. 56 0. 30 0. 37 0. 67 0. 52 0. 32 0. 52 66. 21 118. 52 41. 87 33. 19 99. 85 64. 62 36. 78 45. 11 41. 33 42. 19 130. 43 130. 7 104. 83 160. 66 38. 02 47. 48 174. 54 109. 77 214. 80 156. 23 13. 93 13. 81 40. 27 46. 89 27. 28 33. 44 21. 80 25. 43 33. 54 34. 65 38. 71 18. 13 76. 23 36. 40 367. 93 360. 54 108. 55 54. 36 25. 41 25. 88 Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 219 disappears once unobserved heterogeneity is accounted for (FE and GMM estimators). The intertemporal correlation is 0. 98 for brand awareness, 0. 95 for perceived quality, and 0. 93 for advertising expenditures. This limited amount of intertemporal variation warrants preferring the SGMM over the DGMM estimator.At the same time, however, it constrains how ? nely we can slice the data, e. g. , by isolating a brand-speci? c effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness and perceived quality. Since the FE, DGMM, and SGMM estimators rely on within-brand acrosstime variation, it is important to ensure that there is a suf? cient amount of within-brand variation in brand awareness, perceived quality, and advertising expenditures. Table 3 presents a decomposition of the standard disagreement in these variables into an across-brands and a within-brand component for the overall sample and also by categ ory.The across-brands standard deviation is a measure of the cross-sectional variation and the within-brand standard deviation is a measure of the time-series variation. The across-brands standard deviation of brand awareness is about six generation larger than the within-brand standard deviation. This ratio varies across categories and ranges from 2 for automobiles, beer, wine, liquor, and pharmaceutical prescription to 6 for health and beauty and pharmaceutical OTC. In case of perceived quality the ratio is about 4 (ranging from 1 for telecommunications to 5 for consumer electronics, credit cards, and household).Hence, epoch there is more crosssectional than time-series variation in our sample, the time-series variation is substantial for both brand awareness and perceived quality. Figure 1 illustrates Table 3 Variance decomposition Brand awareness (0100) Across Overall Appliances Automobiles Beer, wine, liquor Beverages Computers Consumer electronics Cosmetics and fragrances Cr edit cards Fast food Food Footwear Health and beauty Household Petrol Pharmaceutical OTC Pharmaceutical prescription Telecommunications Toys Travel 20. 117 5. 282 6. 209 10. 181 13. 435 23. 094 19. 952 18. 054 19. 568 6. 132 16. 241 20. 417 10. 36 16. 719 20. 179 13. 339 9. 393 21. 659 11. 217 16. 063 in spite of appearance 3. 415 1. 334 3. 281 4. 105 2. 915 3. 843 5. 611 3. 684 3. 903 1. 660 2. 255 4. 267 1. 772 3. 896 3. 669 2. 363 5. 772 5. 604 3. 589 3. 216 Perceived quality (010) Across 0. 726 0. 323 0. 561 0. 705 0. 582 0. 850 0. 800 0. 563 0. 788 0. 361 0. 702 0. 388 0. 397 0. 561 0. 415 0. 336 0. 753 0. 452 0. 360 0. 516 Within 0. 176 0. 148 0. 141 0. 186 0. 190 0. 313 0. 167 0. 208 0. 159 0. 202 0. 134 0. 167 0. 136 0. 113 0. 116 0. 129 0. 230 0. 334 0. 127 0. 153 Advertising ($1,000,000) Across 100. 823 28. 965 54. 680 41. 713 37. 505 110. 362 105. 49 38. 446 118. 059 159. 306 15. 655 45. 791 27. 054 18. 789 27. 227 16. 325 38. 648 317. 434 61. 419 22. 136 Within 43. 625 21. 316 32. 552 12. 406 13. 372 65. 909 114. 381 20. 053 43. 415 33. 527 7. 998 7. 640 19. 075 16. 672 20. 496 9. 080 27. 919 178. 406 18. 584 10. 909 220 .025 . 2 C. R. Clark et al. .02 Density . 01 . 015 0 .005 0 20 40 60 80 Mean brand awareness 100 0 30 .05 Density . 1 .15 20 10 0 10 20 Demeaned brand awareness 30 .8 .6 Density . 4 0 .2 0 2 4 6 Mean perceived quality 8 10 0 1. 5 1 Density 2 3 1 . 5 0 . 5 1 Demeaned perceived quality 1. 5 .015 Density . 005 . 01 0 0 00 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Mean advertising expenditures (millions of $) 0 600 400 200 0 200 400 600 Demeaned advertising expenditures (millions of $) Fig. 1 Variance decomposition. Histogram of brand-mean of brand awareness, perceived quality, and advertising expenditures (left panels) and histogram of de-meaned brand awareness, perceived quality, and advertising expenditures (right panels) the decomposition for the overall sample. The left panels show histograms of the brand-mean of brand awareness, perceive d quality, and advertising expenditures and the right panels show histograms of the de-meaned variables.Again it is evident that the time-series variation is substantial for both brand awareness and perceived quality. 5 Empirical results In Tables 4 and 5 we present a number of different estimates for the effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness and perceived quality, .005 Density . 01 . 015 .02 .025 Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality Table 4 Brand awareness POLS Lagged brand awareness Advertising Advertising2 Marginal effect of advertising at Mean 25th pctl. fiftieth pctl. 75th pctl. Advertising test ? 1 = ? 2 = 0 Speci? ation tests Hansen J Difference-in-Hansen J Arellano & Bond AR(2) Arellano & Bond AR(3) Goodness of ? t measures R2 -within R2 -between R2 obs brands FE DGMM SGMM 221 0. 942*** 0. 223*** 0. 679*** 0. 837*** (0. 00602) (0. 0479) (0. 109) (0. 0266) 0. 00535*** 0. 00687 0. 0152 0. 00627** (0. 00117) (0. 00443) (0. 0139) (0. 0 0300) ? 0. 00000409*** ? 0. 00000139 ? 0. 0000105 ? 0. 00000524** (0. 000000979) (0. 00000332) (0. 00000745) (0. 00000239) 0. 00481*** (0. 00107) 0. 00527*** (0. 00116) 0. 00514*** (0. 00113) 0. 00470*** (0. 00105) extinguish*** 0. 00668 (0. 00412) 0. 00684 (0. 00438) 0. 00679 (0. 00430) 0. 00664 (0. 0405) 0. 0138 (0. 0129) 0. 0150 (0. 0138) 0. 0147 (0. 0135) 0. 0136 (0. 00127) 0. 00558** (0. 00269) 0. 00617** (0. 00296) 0. 00600** (0. 00288) 0. 00544** (0. 00263) Do not scorn Do not reject do away with* Do not reject Do not reject Reject** Reject** Do not reject Do not reject 0. 494 0. 940 0. 851 1,148 317 Reject*** 0. 969 1,148 317 819 274 1,148 317 Standard errors in parenthesis * p = 0. 10 ** p = 0. 05 *** p = 0. 01 respectively. Starting with the simplest case absent competition, we present estimates of ? , ? 1 , and ? 2 (the coef? cients on Qit? 1 or Ait? 1 and Eit? 1 and 2 Eit? 1 ) along with the bare(a) effect ? 1 + 2? Eit? 1 calculated at the mean and the 25th, 50th, an d 75th percentiles of advertising expenditures. The POLS estimates in the ? rst pillar of Tables 4 and 5 suggest a signi? cant positive effect of advertising expenditures on both brand awareness and perceived quality. In both cases we also reject the null possibility that advertising plays no role in determining brand awareness and perceived quality (? 1 = ? 2 = 0). Of course, as mentioned above, POLS accounts for neither unobserved heterogeneity nor endogeneity. In the neighboring columns of Tables 4 and 5 we present FE, DGMM, and SGMM estimates that attend to these issues. 7 7 The stimates use at most 317 out of 348 brands because we restrict the sample to brands with data for two years running but use third and higher lags of brand awareness respectively perceived quality and advertising expenditures as instruments. Different sample sizes are reported for the DGMM and SGMM estimators. Sample size is not a well-de? ned concept in SGMM since this estimator essentially runs on tw o different samples simultaneously. The xtabond2 routine in STATA reports the size of the transformed sample for DGMM and of the untransformed sample for SGMM. 222 Table 5 Perceived quality FE 0. 391*** (0. 0611) 0. 659*** (0. 204) 1. 47*** (0. 0459) 0. 981*** (0. 0431) DGMM SGMM object lens quality Brand awareness POLS Lagged perceived quality 0. 970*** (0. 0110) Brand awareness Advertising Advertising2 0. 000218** (0. 0000952) ? 0. 000000133 (0. 000000107) 0. 0000822 (0. 000198) 0. 0000000408 (0. 000000162) ?0. 0000195 (0. 000969) 0. 000000108 (0. 000000945) 0. 0000219 (0. 000205) 0. 0000000571 (0. 000000231) 0. 0000649 (0. 000944) 0. 0000000807 (0. 00000308) 0. 937*** (0. 0413) 0. 00596*** (0. 00165) ? 0. 000298 (0. 000256) 0. 000000319 (0. 000000267) Marginal effect of advertising at Mean 25th pctl. 50th pctl. 75th pctl. 0. 0002** (0. 0000819) 0. 000215** (0. 000933) 0. 000211** (0. 00009) 0. 0001965** (0. 0000793) Do not reject Do not reject Reject*** Do not reject Do not reje ct Do not reject Reject** Reject** Reject*** Do not reject 0. 0000877 (0. 000180) 0. 000083 (0. 000195) 0. 0000844 (0. 000191) 0. 0000887 (0. 000177) ?5. 13e? 06 (0. 000848) ? 0. 0000174 (0. 000952) ? 0. 0000139 (0. 000922) ? 2. 32e? 06 (0. 000825) 0. 0000295 (0. 000176) 0. 0000230 (0. 000201) 0. 0000249 (0. 000194) 0. 0000310 (0. 000170) 0. 0000594 (0. 000740) 0. 0000642 (0. 000917) 0. 0000623 (0. 000847) 0. 0000588 (0. 000714) Do not reject Do not reject Do not reject Reject*** Do not reject ?0. 000256 (0. 000222) ? 0. 00292 (0. 000251) ? 0. 000282 (0. 000242) ? 0. 000248 (0. 000215) Do not reject Reject** Do not reject Reject*** Do not reject Advertising test ? 1 = ? 2 = 0 Speci? cation tests Hansen J Difference-in-Hansen J Arellano & Bond AR(2) Arellano & Bond AR(3) Goodness of ? t measures R2 -within R2 -between R2 obs brands 0. 180 0. 952 0. 909 1,148 317 819 274 1,148 317 Reject** 0. 914 1,148 317 604 178 1,148 317 C. R. Clark et al. Standard errors in parenthesis. SGMM est imates in columns labeled Objective quality and Brand awareness * p = 0. 10 ** p = 0. 05 *** p = 0. 01 Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 23 Regardless of the class of estimator we ? nd a signi? cant positive effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness. With the FE estimator we ? nd that the marginal effect of advertising on awareness at the mean is 0. 00668. It is borderline signi? cant with a p-value of 0. 105 and implies an picnic of 0. 00638 (with a standard error of 0. 00392). A one-standard-deviation increase of advertising expenditures increase brand awareness by 0. 0408 standard deviations (with a standard error of 0. 0251). The rate of depreciation of a brands stock of awareness is estimated to be 10. 223 or 78% per year.The FE estimator identi? es the effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness solely from the within-brand across-time variation. The problem with this estimator is that it does not deal with the endogeneity of the lagged dependent variable on the right-hand side of Eq. 2 and the potential endogeneity of advertising expenditures. We thus turn to the GMM estimators described in Section 3. We focus on the more ef? cient SGMM estimator. The coef? cient on the linear term in advertising expenditures is estimated to be 0. 00627 ( p-value 0. 037) and the coef? cient on the quadratic term is estimated to be ? . 00000524 ( p-value 0. 028). These estimates support the hypothesis that the relationship between advertising and awareness is nonlinear. The marginal effect of advertising on awareness is estimated to be 0. 00558 ( p-value 0. 038) at the mean and implies an elasticity of 0. 00533 (with a standard error of 0. 00257). A one-standard-deviation increase of advertising expenditures increases brand awareness by 0. 0340 standard deviations (with a standard error of 0. 0164). The rate of depreciation decreases substantially after correcting for endogeneity and is estimated to be 1? . 828 or 17% p er year, thus indicating that an increase in a brands stock of awareness due to an increase in advertising expenditures persists for years to come. The Hansen J test for overidentifying restrictions indicates that the instruments taken together as a group are valid. Recall from Section 3 that we must assume that an extra condition holds in order for the SGMM estimator to be appropriate. The difference-in-Hansen J test con? rms that it does, as we cannot reject the null hypothesis that the additional instruments for the level equations are valid.While we reject the hypothesis of no second-order serial correlation in the error terms, we cannot reject the hypothesis of no thirdorder serial correlation. This result further validates our instrumenting strategy. However, one may still be worried about the SGMM estimates because DGMM uses a strict subset of the orthogonality conditions of SGMM and we reject the Hansen J test for the DGMM estimates (see Table 4). From a formal statistical p oint of view, rejecting the smaller set of orthogonality conditions in DGMM is not conclusive evidence that the larger set of orthogonality conditions in SGMM are invalid (Hayashi 2000, pp. 18221). In Fig. 2 we plot the marginal effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness over the entire range of advertising expenditures for our SGMM estimates along with a histogram of advertising expenditures. For advertising expenditures between $400 million and $800 million per year the marginal effect of advertising on awareness is no longer signi? cantly different from zero 224 C. R. Clark et al. Marginal effect . 004 0 . 004 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Advertising expenditures (millions of $) 1200 1400 arginal effect of advertising lower 90% bureau limit . 015 upper 90% confidence limit 0 0 .005 Density . 01 200 400 600 800 1000 Advertising expenditures (millions of $) 1200 1400 Fig. 2 Pointwise con? dence time interval for the marginal effect of advertising expenditures on brand aware ness (upper panel) and histogram of advertising expenditures (lower panel). SGMM estimates and, statistically, it is actually negative for very high advertising expenditures over $800 million per year. The former case covers around 1. 9% of observations and the latter less than 0. 5%.One possible interpretation is that brands with very high current advertising expenditures are those that are already wellknown (perhaps because they have been heavily advertised over the years), so that advertising cannot further boost their awareness. Indeed, average awareness for observations with over $400 million in advertising expenditures is 74. 94 as compared to 69. 35 for the entire sample. Turning from brand awareness in Table 4 to perceived quality in Table 5, we see that the positive effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality found by the POLS estimator disappears once unobserved eterogeneity is accounted by the FE, DGMM, and SGMM estimators. In fact, we cannot reject the null h ypothesis that advertising plays no role in determining perceived quality. Figure 3 graphically illustrates the absence of an effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality at the margin for our DGMM estimates. While the effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality is very imprecisely estimated, it appears to be economically insigni? cant The implied elasticity is ? 0. 0000534 (with a standard error of 0. 00883) and a one-standarddeviation increase of advertising expenditures decrease perceived quality byEffect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 225 Marginal effect . 001 0 . 001 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Advertising expenditures (millions of $) 1200 1400 marginal effect of advertising lower 90% confidence limit . 015 upper 90% confidence limit 0 0 Density . 005 . 01 200 400 600 800 1000 Advertising expenditures (millions of $) 1200 1400 Fig. 3 Pointwise con? dence interval for the marginal effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality (upper panel) and histogram of advertising expenditures (lower panel). DGMM estimates 0. 000869 standard deviations (with a standard error of 0. 44). Note that the comparable effects for brand awareness are two orders of magnitude larger. Much of the remainder of this paper is concerned with demonstrating the robustness of this negative result. Before proceeding we note that whenever possible we focus on the more ef? cient SGMM estimator. Unfortunately, for perceived quality in many cases, including that in the fourth column of Table 5, the difference-in-Hansen J test rejects the null hypothesis that the extra moments in the SGMM estimator are valid. In these cases we focus on the DGMM estimator. 5. Objective and perceived quality An important component of a brands perceived quality is its objective quality. To the extent that objective quality remains constant, it is absorbed into the brand effects. But, even though the time frame of our sample is not very long, it is certainly po ssible that the objective quality of some brands has changed over the course of our sample. If so, then the lack of an effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality may be explained if brand managers increase advertising expenditures to compensate for decreases in objective 26 C. R. Clark et al. quality. To the extent that increased advertising expenditures and decreased objective quality trigger off each other out, their net effect on perceived quality may be zero. The dif? culty with testing this alternative story is that we do not have data on objective quality. We therefore exclude from the analysis those categories with brands that are likely to undergo changes in objective quality (appliances, automobiles, computers, consumer electronics, fast food, footwear, pharmaceutical OTC, telecommunications, toys, and travel).The resulting estimates are reported in Table 5 under the heading Objective quality. We still ? nd no effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality. 8 5. 2 Variation in perceived quality Another possible reason for the lack of an effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality is that perceived quality may not vary much over time. This is not the case in our data. Indeed, the standard deviation of the year-to-year changes in perceived quality is 0. 2154. eve for those products whose objective quality does not change over time there are important changes in perceived quality (standard deviation 0. 130). For example, consider bottled water where we expect little change in objective quality over time, both within and across brands. Nonetheless, there is considerable variation in perceived quality. The perceived quality of Aqua? na Water ranges across years from 6. 33 to 6. 90 and that of Poland Spring Water from 5. 91 to 6. 43, so the equivalent of over two standard deviations. Across the brands of bottled water the range is from 5. 88 to 6. 90, or the equivalent of over four standard deviations. Further evidence of variation in perceived quality is provided by the automobiles category.Here we have obtained measures of objective quality from Consumer Reports that rate vehicles based on their performance, comfort, convenience, safety, and fuel economy. We can ? nd examples of brands whose objective quality does not change at least for a number of years while their perceived quality ? uctuates considerably. For example, Chevy Silverados objective quality does not change between 2000 and 2002, but its perceived quality increases from 6. 08 to 6. 71 over these three years. Similarly, GMC Sierras objective quality does not change between 2001 and 2003, but its perceived quality decreases from 6. 72 to 6. 26. The ? al piece of evidence that we have to offer is the variance decomposition from Section 4 (see again Table 3 and Fig. 1). Recall that the acrossbrands standard deviation of brand awareness is about six times larger than the within-brand standard deviation. In case of perceived quality the ratio is about 4. Hence, while there is more cross-sectional than time-series variation in our sample, the time-series variation is substantial for both brand aware- 8 The marginal effects are calculated at the mean, 25th, 50th, and 75th percentile for advertising for the brands in the categories judged to be stable in terms of objective quality over time.Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 227 ness and perceived quality. Also recall from Section 4 that perceived quality with an intertemporal correlation of 0. 95 is somewhat less persistent than brand awareness with an intertemporal correlation of 0. 98. Given that we are able to detect an effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness, it seems unlikely that insuf? cient variation within brands can explain the lack of an effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality instead, our results suggest that the variation in perceived quality is unrelated to advertising expenditures.The question then becomes what besides advertising may drive these changes in perceived quality. There are numerous possibilities, including consumer learning and word-of-mouth effects. Unfortunately, given up the data available to us, we cannot further explore these possibilities. 5. 3 Brand awareness and perceived quality Another concern is that consumers may confound awareness and preference. That is, consumers may simply prefer more familiar brands over less familiar ones (see Zajonc 1968). To address this issue we proxy for consumers familiarity by adding brand awareness to the regression for perceived quality.The resulting estimates are reported in Table 5 under the heading Brand awareness. While there is a signi? cant positive relationship between brand awareness and perceived quality, there is still no evidence of a signi? cant positive effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality. 5. 4 Competitive effects Advertising takes place in a competitive environment. Most of the in dustries being studied here are indeed oligopolies, which suggests that strategic considerations may in? uence advertising decisions.We next allow a brands stocks of awareness and perceived quality to be affected by the advertising of its competitors as discussed in Section 2. 9 Competitors advertising, in turn, can enter our estimation Eqs. 1 and 2 either relative in the share-of-voice speci? cation or absolute in the total-advertising speci? cation. We report the resulting estimates in Table 6. Somewhat surprisingly, the share-of-voice speci? cation yields an insignificant effect of own advertising. We conclude that the share-of-voice speci? cation is simply not an appropriate functional form in our application. The total-advertising speci? ation promptly con? rms our main ? ndings presented above that own advertising affects brand awareness but not perceived quality. This is true even if we allow competitors advertising to enter quadratically in 9 For this analysis we take the s ubcategory rather than the category as the relevant competitive environment. Consider for instance the beer, wine, liquor category. There is no reason to expect the advertising expenditures of beer brands to affect the perceived quality or awareness of liquor brands. We drop any subcategory in any year where there is just one brand due to the lack of competitors.Table 6 Competitive effects Perceived quality 0. 845*** (0. 0217) 0. 356** (0. 145) Total advertising Brand awareness Perceived quality 228 Share of voice Brand awareness Lagged awareness/quality Relative advertising (Relative advertising)2 0. 872*** (0. 0348) 0. 236 (0. 170) ? 0. 00912 (0. 0104) 1. 068*** (0. 0406) 0. 0168 (0. 0164) ? 0. 00102 (0. 00132) Advertising Advertising2 Competitors advertising 0. 00892** (0. 00387) ? 0. 00000602** (0. 00000248) ? 0. 00609* (0. 00363) ?0. 0000180 (0. 000592) ? 0. 0000000303 (0. 000000535) 0. 00128** (0. 000515) Marginal effect of advertising at Mean 5th pctl. 50th pctl. 75th pctl. 0 . 00333 (0. 00239) 0. 0164 (0. 01218) 0. 00624 (0. 00448) 0. 00264 (0. 00190) Do not reject Reject* Do not reject Reject*** Do not reject 1,147 317 0. 000225 (0. 000218) 0. 00113 (0. 00110) 0. 00429 (0. 000416) 0. 000179 (0. 000173) 0. 00812** (0. 00355) 0. 00881** (0. 00382) 0. 00861** (0. 00375) 0. 00797** (0. 00349) Reject** Do not reject Do not reject Reject** Do not reject 1,147 317 ?0. 000140 (0. 000524) ? 0. 0000174 (0. 000582) ? 0. 0000164 (0. 000565) ? 0. 0000132 (0. 000510) Do not reject Do not reject Reject*** Do not reject 1,147 317 C. R. Clark et al.Advertising test ? 1 = ? 2 = 0 Speci? cation tests Hansen J Difference-in-Hansen J Arellano & Bond AR(2) Arellano & Bond AR(3) obs brands Do not reject Do not reject Do not reject Reject** Do not reject 1,147 317 Standard errors in parenthesis. DGMM estimates in column labeled Total advertising/perceived quality and SGMM estimates otherwise * p = 0. 10 ** p = 0. 05 *** p = 0. 01 Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 229 addition to linearly. Competitors advertising has a signi? cant negative effect on brand awareness and a signi? cant positive effect on perceived quality.Repeating the analysis using the sum instead of the average of competitors advertising yields largely similar results except that the share-of-voice speci? cation yields a signi? cant negative effect of advertising on brand awareness, thereby reinforcing our conclusion that this is not an appropriate functional form. 10 Overall, the inclusion of competitors advertising does not seem to in? uence our results about the role of own advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality. This justi? es our focus on the simple model without competition. Moreover, it suggests that the following alternative explanation for our main ? dings presented above is unlikely. Suppose awareness depended positively on the total amount of advertising in the brands subcategory or category while perceived quality depended positive ly on the brands own advertising but negatively on competitors advertising. Then the results from the simple model without competition could be driven by an omitted variables problem If the brands own advertising is highly correlated with competitors advertising, then we would overstate the impact of advertising on awareness and understate the impact on perceived quality.In fact, we might ? nd no impact of advertising on perceived quality at all if the brands own advertising and competitors advertising cancel each other out. 5. 5 Category-speci? c effects Perhaps the ideal data for analyzing the effect of advertising are time series of advertising expenditures, brand awareness, and perceived quality for the brands being studied. With long enough time series we could then try to identify for each brand in isolation the effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness and perceived quality.Since such time series are unfortunately not available, we have focused so far on the aggre gate effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness and perceived quality, i. e. , we have constrained the slope parameters in Eqs. 1 and 2 that determine the effect of advertising to be the same across brands. Similarly, we have constrained the carryover parameters in Eqs. 1 and 2 that determine the effect of lagged perceived quality and brand awareness respectively to be the same across brands. As a compromise between the two extremes of brands in isolation versus all brands aggregated, we ? st examine the effect of advertising in different categories. This adds some cross-sectional variation across the brands within a 10 We caution the reader against reading too much into these results The number and identity of the brands within a subcategory or category varies sometimes widely from year to year in the Brandweek Superbrands surveys. Thus, the sum of competitors advertising is an extremely volatile measure of the competitive environment. Moreover, the number of brands vari es from 3 for some subcategories to 10 for others, thus making the sum of competitors advertising dif? ult to compare across subcategories. 230 Table 7 Category-speci? c effects Brand awareness Marginal effect Carryover rate Appliances Automobiles Beer, wine, liquor Beverages Computers Consumer electronics Cosmetics and fragrances Credit cards Fast food Food Footwear Health and beauty Household Petrol Pharmaceutical OTC Pharmaceutical prescription Telecommunications Toys Travel 0. 0233 (0. 0167) 0. 00526 (0. 0154) ? 0. 0264 (0. 0423) ? 0. 0245 (0. 0554) 0. 0193** (0. 00777) 0. 0210** (0. 0